Государство в современной России

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Routledge, 1991. P. 115.
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ijhlb\hj_qb_jZaj_rZehkv\Jhkkbb"
15.3
J_nhjfbjh\Zgb_j_nhjfdhgljj_\hexpbyk\_jom"
15.3.1
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43
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44
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15.3.2
IheblbdZnbgZgkh\hcklZ[bebaZpbb
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47
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\eZkl_c ]hkm^Zjkl\_gghc gZeh]h\hc kem`[u b djmiguo ij_^ijbylbc Kf.: Shleifer A., Treisman D. Without a Map: Political Tactics and
Economic Reform in Russia. Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 2000. J
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Williamson J. (ed.) The Political Economy of Policy Reform. Washington, DC: Institute for International(FRQRPLFVj-KflZd`_
Burki, Shahid J., Perry Guillermo E. Beyond the Washington Consensus: Institutions Matter. The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1990, 7;
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Washington, D.C.: The Institute for International Economics, 1990.
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Elster J. Economic Order and Social Norms // Journals of Institutional and TheoUHWLFDO(FRQRPLFV‹Jp. 357-366.
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61
Kf.: The World Competitiveness Report 1999. World Economic Forum, Geneva, 1999.
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kh[kl\_gghklv?]hfh`ghljZdlh\ZlvdZdklhqdbaj_gbyijZ\ZlZdbklhqdbaj_gbywdhghfbdb
I_j\Zy ljZdlh\dZ l_jfbgZ hklZlhqgZy ]hkm^Zjkl\_ggZy kh[kl\_gghklv residual state property ihemqbeZ rbjhdmx
ba\_klghklv [eZ]h^Zjy jZ[hlZf < :g^j_nZ65 < hklZlhqgmx ]hkm^Zjkl\_ggmx kh[kl\_gghklv hg \dexqZ_l ij_^ijbylby \
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Kf.: Olson M. Why is economic Performance even worse after communism is abandoned / Virginia political economy lecture series. Fairfax,
Virginia, 1993, March 17; DZi_exrgbdh\ JB =^_ gZqZeh lh]h dhgpZ" d \hijhkm h[ hdhgqZgbb i_j_oh^gh]h i_jbh^Z \ Jhkkbb //
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65
Andreff W. The current state of economics of privatization: lessons from transitional economies / The current state of Economic Science. Ed. by
S.B. Dahiya. Spellbound Publications, 1999. J-13.
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74
Alchian A.A. Corporate management and property rights // The economics of property rights. Ed. by Furuboth E. G., Pejovich S. Cambridge, 1974.
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91
Davis D.G., Brucato P.F. Property rights and transaction costs: theory and evidence of privately-owned and governmently-owned enterprises //
Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics. 1987. Vol ‹ Pbl ih DZi_exrgbdh\ J Wdhghfbq_kdZy l_hjby ijZ\
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De Alessi L. The economics of property rights: a review of evidence // Research in Law and Economics. 1980.Vol. 2. P. 27-40.
93
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Kf.: Greer D.F. Industrial Organization and Public Policy. 3rd ed. Macmillan Publishing Company, 1992. J. 629-630.
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mkeh\byfijhl_dZ_l[ukljhbkgZbf_gvrbfbihl_jyfbWeiss L. W., Strickland A.D. Regulation: a Case Approach. New York: McGraw Hill,
1976. J LZdbf h[jZahf Zj]mf_glu h g_h[oh^bfhklb j_]mebjh\Zgby \ hljZkeyo k ^_kljmdlb\ghc dhgdmj_gpb_c bf_xl h]jZgbq_ggh_
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j_]mebjmxs_c dhfbkkbb (Interstate Commerce Commission) (MakAvoy Paul W. The Economic Effect of Regulation: The Trunkline Railroad
Cartels and Interstate Commerce Commision Before 1900. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1965).
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17.3.3
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\aZbfh^_ckl\bb iheblbdZ b ba[bjZl_ey \ fh^_eb we_dlhjZevgh]h pbdeZ ijb mkeh\bb kms_kl\h\Zgby \hafh`ghkl_c ^ey
iheblbdh\ ih ba\e_q_gbx j_glu >Ze__ ihdZaZgh qlh ih^h[gh_ \aZbfh^_ckl\b_ fh`_l ijb\h^blv d \hagbdgh\_gbx
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18.1
J_glhhjb_glbjh\Zggh_ih\_^_gb_g_hbgklblmpbhgZevgucih^oh^
Hkgh\gu_ b^_b k\yaZggu_ k kms_kl\h\Zgb_f iheblbq_kdhc j_glu aZjh^bebkv \ jZfdZo ljZ^bpbhgghc
fbdjhwdhghfbq_kdhc l_hjbb175 L_jfbg j_glhhjb_glbjh\Zggh_ ih\_^_gb_ Rent-Seeking behavior ihy\beky g_kdhevdh
iha^g__\jZ[hlZo:Djx]_j176.
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LZeehdhf177 JZkkfhlj_ggZy bf [hjv[Z aZ fhghihevgmx j_glm ijb\h^beZ d _z qZklbqghc jZkljZl_ l_ ihfbfh
deZkkbq_kdbo qbkluo ihl_jv h[s_kl\Z hl fhghihebb ihl_jyfb ^ey h[s_kl\Z klZgh\beZkv qZklv fhghihevghc j_glu
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\ kemqZ_ k fhghiheb_c mklZgZ\eb\Z_fhc ]hkm^Zjkl\hf dh]^Z jZkoh^u k\yaZggu_ k ihemq_gb_f fhghihevghc j_glu g_
ijbghkyl gbdZdh]h ^hihegbl_evgh]h ijh^mdlZ LZdb_ jZkoh^u = LZeehd oZjZdl_jbam_l dZd ihl_jyggu_ ^ey h[s_kl\Z
(wasteful).
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ihbkdZj_glu
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f_j_lh]hdZdbg^b\b^ubnbjfu[hjxlkyaZ]hkm^Zjkl\_ggu_ijb\be_]bb^eyk\h_c^_yl_evghklb\hagbdZ_lihbkdj_glu
Ihkdhevdm dhgdmj_gpby \ kn_j_ [hjv[u aZ ijb\be_]bb g_ fh`_l jZkrbjblv h]jZgbq_gguc aZdhghf \uimkd lh h[s_kl\h
[m^_lg_klbihl_jbk\yaZggu_kaZljZlZfbgZihemq_gb_ijb\be_]bc
>eyZgZebaZj_glhhjb_glbjh\Zggh]hih\_^_gbyiheblbq_kdbo^_yl_e_cieh^hl\hjgufhdZau\Z_lkyZgZebakihabpbb
l_hjbb ]jmii178 Nmgdpbhgbjh\Zgb_ iheblbq_kdh]h f_oZgbafZ k ^Zgghc lhqdb aj_gby jZkkfZljb\Z_lky dZd ijhp_kk
175
Tullock G., The Welfare Costs Of Tariffs, Monopoly and Theft // Western Economic Journal. 1967. Vol. 5. June.
Kf.: Krueger A. The Political Economy of the Rent - Seeking Society // American EcoQRPLF5HYLHZ9RO‹3–303.
177
Kf.: Tullock G. The Welfare Costs Of Tariffs, Monopoly and Theft // Western Economic Journal, 1967. Vol. 5. June. G_h[oh^bfh aZf_lblv, qlh,
hlg_k_ggZy ih \k_f ijbagZdZf d deZkkbq_kdhfm ih^oh^m, jZ[hlZ =hj^hgZ LZeehdZ [ueZ ibhg_jghc ^ey k\h_]h \j_f_gb b ihkem`beZ k_jv_aguf
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178
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176
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kh]eZkby\jZfdZoiheblbq_kdh]hijhp_kkZLZdbfh[jZahfiheblbq_kdZyj_glZ_klv\hafh`ghklvbkihevah\Zgbyijhp_kkZ
^hklb`_gbyf_`]jmiih\h]hkh]eZkby^eyba\e_q_gby^hihegbl_evguo\u]h^
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iZjeZf_gl_ kljZgu O g_h[oh^bfh kh]eZkb_ [hevrbgkl\Z ^_imlZlh\ >_imlZlu jZkij_^_e_gu ih g_[hevrbf ]jmiiZf ?keb
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dhZebpbb hdZau\Zxlky \ \ub]jur_ ba\e_dZy ba wlh]h iheblbq_kdmx j_glm H^gZdh ih^h[gZy ijZdlbdZ ijb\h^bl d
g_wnn_dlb\gufkhklhygbyfihkdhevdm\e_q_lihl_jb^eyhklZ\r_ckyqZklbiZjeZf_glZIh^h[gZyijZdlbdZghkblgZa\Zgb_
eh]jheebg]Z179.
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kms_kl\h\Zgbyy\e_gbyiheblbq_kdhcj_glu"
Hkgh\guf ^hklb`_gb_f g_hbgklblmpbhgZevghc l_hjbb klZe ijbgpbi jZkkfhlj_gby y\e_gbc \ aZ\bkbfhklb hl
kms_kl\mxsbo h]jZgbq_gbc < jZfdZo g_hbgklblmpbhgZevgh]h ih^oh^Z \u^_ey_lky g_kdhevdh ijbqbg kms_kl\h\Zgby
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jbkdZ180 L_hjby h`b^Z_fhc ihe_aghklb >` nhg G_cfZgZ b H Fhj]_grl_jgZ181 klZeZ mgb\_jkZevghc iZjZ^b]fhc ^ey
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>` Klb]e_jZ \ jZfdZo l_hjbb ihbkdZ bgnhjfZpbb182 Hkgh\gZy b^_y aZdexqZ_lky \ lhf qlh ^hklmi d bgnhjfZpbb g_
y\ey_lky [_kieZlguf b k\h[h^guf l_ ihemq_gb_ bgnhjfZpbb lj_[m_l dZdbo-eb[h aZljZl G_iheghlZ bgnhjfZpbb gZ
ijZdlbd_hagZqZ_lg_ijhajZqghklv\ijbgylbbj_r_gbc
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l_hjbb ihkuedZ h iheghc bgnhjfZpbb khq_lZ_lky k fh^_evx q_eh\_dZ h[eZ^Zxs_]h g_h]jZgbq_ggufb ZgZeblbq_kdbfb
kihkh[ghklyfb JZajZ[hlZggZy = KZcfhghf l_hjby h]jZgbq_gghc jZpbhgZevghklb ij_^eZ]Z_l Zevl_jgZlb\gu_ ijhp_^mju
\u[hjZ \ mkeh\byo g_iheghc bgnhjfZpbb Ijhp_kk ijbgylby j_r_gby khklhbl ba ^\mo hkgh\guo fhf_glh\ ihbkd b
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g_hdeZkkbq_kdhc l_hjbb g_l \k_h[s_c b ihke_^h\Zl_evghc nmgdpbb ihe_aghklb dhlhjZy iha\hebeZ [u kjZ\gblv
jZaghjh^gu_Zevl_jgZlb\u183JZpbhgZevghklv\^ZgghfkemqZ_h]jZgbq_gZhlghkbl_evghijhp_^mjufZdkbfbaZpbb\lh`_
\j_fylZdh_ih\_^_gb_iheghklvxih^iZ^Z_lih^ihgylb_nmgdpbhgZevghcjZpbhgZevghklb184.
Hiihjlmgbklbq_kdh_ih\_^_gb_mqZklgbdh\
Ihgylb_ hiihjlmgbklbq_kdh]h ih\_^_gby gZijyfmx k\yaZgh k fhlb\Zpb_c wdhghfbq_kdh]h Z]_glZ Fhlb\
kh[kl\_ggh]h bgl_j_kZ gZoh^blky \ p_glj_ fh^_ebjh\Zgby wdhghfbq_kdh]h ih\_^_gby gZ ijhly`_gbb \k_]h i_jbh^Z
kms_kl\h\Zgbywdhghfbq_kdhcl_hjbbH^gZdh_]hbgl_jij_lZpbyij_l_ji_\ZeZg_dhlhju_baf_g_gby
I_j\hgZqZevghfhlb\kh[kl\_ggh]hbgl_j_kZljZdlh\Zekybkdexqbl_evghdZdw]hbaf<k\yabkl_fqlhl_jfbg
w]hbaf bf__l yjdh \ujZ`_ggmx wfhpbhgZevgmx hdjZkdm g_dhlhju_ l_hj_lbdb aZf_gbeb _]h g_cljZevguf beb
[_ajZaebqguf hlghr_gb_f ohayckl\mxs_]h km[t_dlZ d g_agZdhfuf _fm hdjm`Zxsbf ex^yf Wlh hagZqZ_l qlh
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qm\kl\185.
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G_hij_^_e_gghklv dhgljZdlh\ gZ iheblbq_kdhf jugd_ beb \ [he__ h[s_f kemqZ_ h[s_kl\_gghf k_dlhj_ kha^Z_l
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NWB
179
Ih^jh[g__kfGmj__\JFDmjkfbdjhwdhghfbdbMq_[gbd^ey\mah\FGhjfZ-BgnjZ FK. 460.
180
Knight F.H. Risk, Uncertainty, and Profit. Boston, 1921.
181
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182
Klb]e_j>`Wdhghfbq_kdZyl_hjbybgnhjfZpbbL_hjbynbjfuIh^j_^<F =Zevi_jbgZKI[., 1995.
183
Simon H.A. Simon H.A. Rational Decision-making in Business Organizations // Les Prix Novel 1978. Stockholm, 1979. P. 285.
184
Ih^jh[g__kf:\lhghfh\<KFh^_evq_eh\_dZ\wdhghfbq_kdhcgZmd_KI[Wdhghfbq_kdZyrdheZK-12.
185
Boulding K. Economics of Science. N. Y., 1970. P. 132.
186
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187
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khpbZevguobgklblmlh\bkbkl_fF<uiK. 43.
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kms_kl\mxsb_l_hjbbiheblbq_kdbo^_eh\uopbdeh\bohkgh\gu_lbiu
18.2
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Nordhaus W. The Jolitical Business Cycle // Review of Economic Studies. 1975. Vol. 42. P.169-190.
Person T., Tabellini G. Macroeconomic policy, credibility and politics. Harwood Academic Publisher, 1990.
190
Rogoff K. Equilibrium political business cycles // Review of Economic Studies. Vol. 55. 1990. P. 1-16.
191
Hibbs D. Political parties and macroeconomic policy // The American Political Science Review. 1977. Vol.7. P. 85-100.
192
Alesina A. Macroeconomic policy in a two-part system as a repeated game // Quarterly Journal of Economics. 1987. Vol. 102. P. 641-678; Alesina
A. Macroeconomics and Politics // NBER Working Annual. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1988; Alesina A., Roubini N. Political Cycles in OECD
EconoPLHV1%(5:RUNLQJ3DSHU‹
193
Kf. gZijbf_j: Tafte E. Political control of the economy. Princeton University Press, 1978; Frey B., Schneider F. An empirical study of politicoeconomic interaction in the United States // The Review of Economics and Statistics. 1978. Vol. 60. P. 174-183.
194
Schuknecht L. Political business cycles and fiscal policies in developing countries // Kyklus. 1996. Vol. 49. P. 155-170.
195
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Fuij_^iheh`bfqlhiheblbd[m^_l]hlh\jZ[hlZlv^Z`_ijbo l_\k_^hoh^uiheblbdZjZkkfZljb\Z_fu_\fh^_ebihkmlb_klv
iheblbq_kdZyj_glZ
Ijb\u[hj_kljZl_]bbk\h_]hih\_^_gbyiheblbd[m^_l\u[bjZlvfZdkbfZevgh_agZq_gb_ba
b
x max
x*
.
δ
< kemqZ_ dh]^Z kijZ\_^eb\h khhlghr_gb_ x
max
>
x*
, gZklmibl khklhygb_ ijb dhlhjhf dZ`^uc iheblbd
δ
ihevam_lky kljZl_]b_c -ihemqZ_l xmax \ i_j\hf i_jbh^_ b moh^bl \ hlklZ\dm Ijb wlhf ba[bjZl_ev dZ`^uc fhf_gl
\j_f_gb t [m^_l g_klb ihl_jb xmax, l_ fZdkbfZevgh \hafh`gu_ ihl_jb Hq_\b^gh – qlh wlh kZfh_ gZbom^r__ ^ey
ba[bjZl_e_ckhklhygb_\hafh`gh_\^Zgghcfh^_eb
x * ,iheblbdij_^ihql_ldZ`^uci_jbh^ihemqZlv[l_\hkihevah\ZlvkykljZl_]b_c>ZggZy
<kemqZ_ x max <
δ
kblmZpby kljh]h ij_^ihqlbl_evg__ ^ey ba[bjZl_ey q_f i_j\h_ khklhygb_ o xmax ld o – wlh ihl_jb ba[bjZl_ey ?keb
ba[bjZl_evkZf\khklhygbbhij_^_eylvagZq_gb_k\h_]hmjh\gyl_jibfhklbolhhq_\b^ghqlh_fmg_h[oh^bfh\u[jZlv
lZdh_ fbgbfZevgh_ agZq_gb_ ^ey o ijb dhlhjhf iheblbd [m^_l \u[bjZlv kljZl_]bx Hg g_ fh`_l ij_^ty\eylv
aZ\ur_ggu_ lj_[h\Zgby d iheblbdZf l_ hq_gv gbadb_ agZq_gby o ld iheblbd ijhklh \hkihevam_lky kljZl_]b_c ihemqb\xmax \i_j\hfi_jbh^_
HilbfZevguf^eyba[bjZl_ey[m^_lkhklhygb_ijbdhlhjhf\uihegy_lky
x max =
x*
δ
(18.2)
bgZbemqrbf\u[hjhf^eyba[bjZl_ey[m^_l\_ebqbgZ[\kemqZ__kebxmaxbδnbdkbjh\Zgu
x*=δ xmax .
(18.3)
NhjfmeZbeexkljbjm_llhlnZdlqlhba[bjZl_ev\ugm`^_gfbjblvkykihl_jyfbgZmjh\g_[dhlhju_aZ\bkyl
hlfZdkbfZevghc\_ebqbgu[maxbklZ\dbf_`\j_f_ggh]h^bkdhglbjh\Zgby δ .
<u\h^dhlhjucke_^m_lbawlhcfZdkbfZevghijhklhcfh^_eblZdh\q_ff_g__bg^b\b^up_gyl[m^ms__l_q_f
[hevr_δl_f k[hevrbfagZq_gb_f[hgb^he`gufbjblvkyLZdbfh[jZahfijbg_\ukhdboij_^ihql_gbyo[m^msbo
i_jbh^h\miheblbdh\ba[bjZl_eb[m^mll_ji_lv[)evrb_ihl_jbhlj_glhhjb_glbjh\Zgghc^_yl_evghklbiheblbdh\
q_f\kemqZ_[he__\ukhdboij_^ihql_gbc[m^msboi_jbh^h\miheblbdh\
x * \hagbdZ_l kblmZpby
>jm]hc \u\h^ ijb aZ^Zgguo agZq_gbyo [ b δ \ kemqZ_ dh]^Z agZq_gb_ x max >
δ
ihklhygghckf_guiheblbq_kdbo^_yl_e_cwlhqj_a\uqZcghg_[eZ]hijbylgZykblmZpby^eyba[bjZl_ey
LZdbf h[jZahf kms_kl\m_l hij_^_e_ggh_ ihjh]h\h_ agZq_gb_ [PDo ij_\ur_gb_ dhlhjh]h kha^Z_l djZcg_
g_[eZ]hijbylgmxkblmZpbxk\yaZggmxkfZdkbfZevgh\hafh`gufbihl_jyfbba[bjZl_ey
IjhklhlZ^Zgghcfh^_eb\i_j\mxhq_j_^vfh^_evhdjm`Zxs_]hfbjZk^bkdj_lguf\j_f_g_fbi_j_ba[jZgb_f\
dZ`^uci_jbh^t_szg_iha\hey_lgZ]ey^ghijhbeexkljbjh\Zlvf_oZgbafnhjfbjh\Zgbyiheblbq_kdh]h^_eh\h]hpbdeZ
H^gZdhg_kfhljygZdjZcgxxijhklhlmfh^_eb_zijbf_g_gb_djhkkbckdhc^_ckl\bl_evghklbkihkh[ghihfhqv\
ZgZeba_y\e_gbcjhkkbckdhciheblbq_kdhc^_ckl\bl_evghklbbihemqblvg_ljb\bZevgu_j_amevlZlu
<]\\u[hjZo\=hkm^Zjkl\_ggmx>mfmijbgbfZebmqZklb_iZjlbbb[ehdZgZ\u[hjZo\ ]–ba
dhlhjuolhevdhhdhehijbgbfZebmqZklb_\\u[hjZo]
>ZggucnZdl_klvkb]gZehlhfqlh[hevrbgkl\hiheblbq_kdbo^_yl_e_cij_^ihqblZ_l\hkihevah\ZlvkykljZl_]b_c
l_ihemq_gbyfZdkbfZevgh\hafh`guo\u]h^\i_j\uckjhdqlhdZd[uehihdZaZgh\ur_djZcg_g_wnn_dlb\gh^ey
ba[bjZl_e_c.
Jhkkbybfgh]b_kljZgulj_lv_]hfbjZy\ey_lkykbf\hehfdhjjmipbb\]eZaZoaZiZ^gh]hh[u\Zl_eyDZdfh`gh
h[tykgblvlhlnZdlqlhjhkkbckdb_ba[bjZl_ebm`_ijb\udebdg_qbklhiehlghklbiheblbdh\"Qlhy\ey_lkyijbqbghc
lZdh]hg_^hihgbfZgby"
L_jfbgijb\udebdg_qbklhiehlghklbiheblbdh\fh`ghbgl_jij_lbjh\Zlv\jZfdZo^Zgghcfh^_ebdZdkbghgbf
bf_xl [he__ \ukhdb_ mjh\gb l_jibfhklb o < khhl\_lkl\bb k nhjfmehc hilbfZevguc mjh\_gv l_jibfhklb
ba[bjZl_e_chij_^_ey_lkydZdx*=δ xmax.
Fh`ghml\_j`^Zlvqlh^eykljZglj_lv_]hfbjZagZq_gb_xmax\ur_q_f\ex[hcbajZa\bluokljZg;he__lh]h
fh`ghk\ukhdhc^hklh\_jghklvx]h\hjblvqlhbagZq_gb_ δ ^eyjZa\b\ZxsbokykljZg[he__\ukhdh_l_[m^ms__\gbo
p_gblkyf_gvr_LZdbfh[jZahf\ukhdZyl_jibfhklvd]jyagufiheblbdZf^eyjZa\b\ZxsbokykljZg-wlhkihkh[[hjv[u
k _sz [he__ ]jyagufb JZa\b\Zxsb_ky kljZgu ijhklh g_ fh]ml iha\heblv k_[_ ijb^_j`b\Zlvky aZiZ^guo klZg^Zjlh\
hj]ZgbaZpbbiheblbq_kdhc`bagbh[s_kl\Z
<kz\ur_kdZaZggh_hkljZgZolj_lv_]hfbjZlZd`_hlghkblkybdJhkkbb
18.3.2
Fh^_evwe_dlhjZevgh]hpbdeZkmq_lhfljZgkZdpbhgguoba^_j`_d
Hkgh\gZyb^_y^Zevg_cr_]hjZa\blbyfh^_ebaZdexqZ_lky\lhfqlhgZcfbm\hevg_gb_iheblbdh\h[s_kl\hf
k\yaZgukhij_^_e_ggufbaZljZlZfb
=h\hjyhljZgkZdpbhgguoba^_j`dZoijh\_^_gby\u[hjh\fu[m^_fihgbfZlvijhp_kk\u[hjh\\madhfkfuke_dZd
ijhp_kk \_^_gby i_j_]h\hjh\ Lh]^Z \ khhl\_lkl\bb k deZkkbnbdZpb_c J DhmaZ198 fu bf__f ^_eh k ba^_j`dZfb \_^_gby
198
DhmaJNbjfZjughdbijZ\hFCatallaxy", 1993.
i_j_]h\hjh\<[he__rbjhdhfkfuke_ba^_j`dbijh\_^_gby\u[hjh\ih^jZamf_\Z_lijhp_kkh[f_gZf_`^mba[bjZl_eyfbb
iheblbdZfb\dhlhjhf]hehkZf_gyxlkygZh[_sZgbyj_imlZpbxbl^ GZjugd_ex^bf_gyxly[ehdbgZZi_evkbguZ\
iheblbd_–kh]eZrZxlkyieZlblvgZeh]b\h[f_ggZ[eZ]Zg_h[oh^bfu_\k_fbdZ`^hfm199.
<^hiheg_gb_dljZgkZdpbhggufba^_j`dZfhldZ`_fkyhlij_^ihkuedbh^bkdj_lghf\j_f_gbbjZkkfhljbffh^_ev
kg_ij_ju\guf\j_f_g_fdhlhjh_baf_gy_lkyhl^h∞^ZggZyij_^ihkuedZghkbll_ogbq_kdbcoZjZdl_jbg_h[oh^bfZ
^ey[he__gZ]ey^ghcbgl_jij_lZpbbj_amevlZlh\ZgZebaZ
Ij_^iheh`bfqlh\fhf_glu\j_f_gbWe]^_
te = t0+ n*∆]^_Q «
ba^_j`dbi_j_ba[jZgbyjZ\gyxlky(&election costs).
<^jm]b_fhf_glu\j_f_gbW
t ≠ t0+ n*∆]^_Q «
ba^_j`dbi_j_ba[jZgbyjZ\gyxlky,&impeachment costs)
Ijbwlhf(&,&∆ -^ebl_evghklvh^gh]hkjhdZiheblbdZ
Wlh hagZqZ_l qlh kms_kl\mxl mihjy^hq_ggu_ fhf_glu \j_f_gb \u[hju \ dhlhju_ \hafh`gZ kf_gZ
kms_kl\mxsbo^_yl_e_c\kemqZ__kebhgbg_m^h\e_l\hjyxlbgl_j_kZfbg^b\b^h\k^hklZlhqghgbadbfbba^_j`dZfb<
^jm]b_`_fhf_glu\j_f_gbwlbba^_j`dbij_\urZxlba^_j`db\u[hjh\Fh^_evba[jZgbyhibkZggZyjZg___klvqZklguc
kemqZc^ZgghckblmZpbb\dhlhjhf(& ,&→∞b∆ → 0.)
DZdbjZgvr_\dZ`^ucfhf_gl\j_f_gbWiheblbd\khklhygbbihemqblv[max \hkgh\_wlhcij_^ihkuedbe_`Zll_
`_ kZfu_ Zj]mf_glu dZd b \ ij_^u^ms_f kemqZ_ Ihe_aghklv iheblbdZ - kljh]h \hajZklZxsZy nmgdpby hl
^bkdhglbjh\Zggh]hihlhdZj_glu
Iheblbd dZd b jZgvr_ fZdkbfbabjm_l ^bkdhglbjh\Zgguc ihlhd j_glguo ieZl_`_c200 DZ`^uc fhf_gl \j_f_gb
iheblbdbf__l\hafh`ghklvihemqZlvot ∈ [0, xmax@Ijbwlhfot = [m^_lhagZqZlvqlhhgg_[m^_lihemqZlvgbdZdhcj_glu
l_ ^hoh^ dhlhjuc hg ihemqZe [u \ kemqZ_ jZ\gh\_kby gZ b^_Zevghf iheblbq_kdhf jugd_ ot = xmax khhl\_lkl\m_l
kblmZpbbijbdhlhjhciheblbdbkihevam_l\k_\hafh`ghklbba\e_q_gby\eZklghcj_glu
Iheblbd[m^_li_j_ba[jZg\kemqZ__kebkmffZjgucihlhdj_glihke_fhf_glZihke_^g_]hba[jZgbyg_ij_\ukbl
g_dhlhjhc\_ebqbguo>Zggh_mkeh\b_iheghklvxkhhl\_lkl\m_lkblmZpbbhibkZgghcjZg__^eyh^gh]hi_jbh^Z\j_f_gb
JZagbpZaZdexqZ_lkyebrv\lhfqlho\^ZgghfkemqZ_hljZ`Z_lgZdhie_ggu_j_glgu_ieZl_`b.
Ijbwlhfiheblbd[m^_l^hkjhqghhlkljZg_g_keb_]hgZdhie_ggZyj_glZaZi_jbh^kihke_^gbo\u[hjh\ij_\ukbl
o ]^_ o - ^hihegbl_evgZy f_jZ l_jibfhklb hibku\ZxsZy ih\_^_gb_ ]jZ`^Zg h[s_kl\Z Ijb ij_\ur_gbb
gZdhie_gghcj_gluaZkjhdhlihke_^gbo\u[hjh\oiheblbd[m^_li_j_ba[jZg^hkjhqgho!x*).
;m^_f ij_^iheZ]Zlv qlh \_ebqbgu o o omax, δ b ∆ h^gZ`^u [m^mqb \u[jZgu hklZxlky ihklhyggufb gZ
ijhly`_gbb\k_]hi_jbh^Z\j_f_gb
18.4
IhbkdhilbfZevgh]hiheblbq_kdh]h^_eh\h]hpbdeZ
18.4.1
F_oZgbafnhjfbjh\Zgbywe_dlhjZevgh]hpbdeZ
JZkkfhljbf\hafh`gh_ih\_^_gb_iheblbdh\IheblbdijbgbfZyj_r_gb_h\u[hj_kljZl_]bb[m^_lbkihevah\Zlv
djbl_jbcfZdkbfbaZpbb^bkdhglbjh\Zggh]hihlhdZj_glguoieZl_`_c
>eyiheblbdZ^hklmiguke_^mxsb_kljZl_]bb
1. KljZl_]by[ukljhcgZ`b\udh]^Ziheblbdj_rZ_lihemqZlvfZdkbfZevgh\hafh`gmxj_glm\i_j\uckjhd
2. KljZl_]by ^he]h\j_f_ggh]h ij_[u\Zgby dh]^Z hg j_rZ_l i_j_ba[bjZlvky dZ`^uc kjhd [_kdhg_qgh_
dhebq_kl\hjZa
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ZaZl_fmclbg_kms_kl\m_lZgZeh]bqghlhfmqlh[uehijh^_eZgh\ur_^ey[he__ijhklhcfh^_eb
<u[hjkljZl_]bbih\_^_gby[m^_laZ\bk_lvhlkhhlghr_gbyf_`^m[[b[max∆.
xmax∆ -wlhfZdkbfZevgh\hafh`gucihlhdiheblbq_kdhcj_gluaZh^bgkjhd
JZkkfhljbf\hafh`gu_kemqZb
1) x*/ xmax < x**/ xmax < ∆
DZd[uehihdZaZgh\hafh`gu^\_kljZl_]bbih\_^_gby
KljZl_]by ^he]h\j_f_ggh]h ij_[u\Zgby iheblbd dZ`^uc kjhd [m^_l ihemqZlv ihlhd j_glguo ieZl_`_c
jZ\gucoFZdkbfbabjmy^bkdhglbjh\Zggucihlhdj_glguoieZl_`_ciheblbd\gZqZe_dZ`^h]hi_jbh^Z[m^_lklj_fblvky
fZdkbfZevgh [ukljh ihemqblv k\h_ o gZ wlh _fm ihlj_[m_lky \j_f_gb oomax Z aZl_f \_klb djbklZevgh q_klgmx
^_yl_evghklv\iehlv^hgh\uo\u[hjh\LZdbfh[jZahfiheblbd[m^_lihemqZlvj_glgu_ieZl_`b\i_jbh^uhlk∆^hk∆ +
oomax ]^_d «
>bkdhglbjh\ZggucihlhdieZl_`_c^ey^Zggh]hkemqZyij_^klZ\e_ggZjbkmgd_ Z201.
;vxd_g_g>`Dhgklblmpbywdhghfbq_kdhciheblbdb<hijhkuwdhghfbdb‹K.
199
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200
L_j_rZ_laZ^ZqmihgZoh`^_gbxPD[
∫xe
t
− δt
dt
(15.4).
0
201
:gZeblbq_kdb^bkdhglbjh\ZggucihlhdieZl_`_chij_^_ey_lkydZd
∞
k∆ +
x*
x max
∑ ∫x
k =0
k∆
e dt =
− δt
max
∞
∑
k=0
x*
)
− δ ( k∆ +
x max
x max
− e − δk∆ ) =
(e
−δ
x*
x max
x*
∞
−δ
x max
)
(1 − e x max )∑ e − δk∆ = x (1 − e
δ
k =0
δ (1 − e )
−δ
max
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≡ V1 (∆, x*, xmax, δ)
(15.5)
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x*
ti
xt
ti+x*/xmax
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t
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t
[Ihlhdj_glijbj_ZebaZpbbkljZl_]bb
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ti
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2) x*/ xmax < ∆ < x**/ xmax
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i_j_ba[jZgb_hkms_kl\eyehkvkba^_j`dZfbIC.
3) ∆ < x*/ xmax < x**/ xmax
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ba[bjZl_e_ckf jbk Z
x **
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202
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∫x
0
203
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∆
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0
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e − δ t dt
=
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(1 − e −δ∆ ) ≡V2(∆, x**, xmax, δ)
δ
∞
204
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∫x
0
max
e − δ t dt
=
x max
δ
(15.6)
(15.7)
x **
−δ
x max
x max
(1 − e
) ≡V2 (∆, x**, xmax, δ)
e dt =
δ
− δt
max
KljmdlmjZ j_glguo ieZl_`_c bah[jZ`_ggZy gZ jbk Z \hagbdeZ ba-aZ fZdkbfbaZpbb iheblbdhf
^bkdhglbjh\Zggh]hihlhdZijbij_^iheh`_gbbqlh^eyba[bjZl_ey\k_i_jbh^uh^bgZdh\hp_ggul_fukfhljbfgZo
dZd gZ kmffm \k_o ihl_jv \h \k_ fhf_glu t < kemqZ_ \\_^_gby ^bkdhglbjmxs_]h nZdlhjZ \ mjh\_gv l_jibfhklb o
ihemq_ggucgZjbk Zj_amevlZl[ue[u_sz[he__kljh]bfihkdhevdmmiheblbdZihy\beky[u_szZj]mf_gl\ihevam
lh]hqlh\k_\u]h^ugZ^hihemqZlv\gZqZe_k\h_]hkjhdZij_[u\Zgby
DZd m`_ mihfbgZehkv \ [Zah\hc fh^_eb b dZd [m^_l ihdZaZgh ^Zevr_ bf_ggh kljZl_]by ^he]hkjhqgh]h
ij_[u\Zgby[m^_l`_eZl_evgZ\[hevrbgkl\_kemqZ_\^eyba[bjZl_e_c
Ih^h[gu_jZkkm`^_gbyhf_oZgbafZonhjfbjh\Zgbyiheblbq_kdh]h^_eh\h]hpbdeZg_]h\hjylgZfdZdbfbf_ggh
h[jZahf[m^_lj_Zebah\ZgZijhp_^mjZba\e_q_gbyj_gluiheblbdhfIh^^Zggmxko_fmih^oh^yl\k_jZagh\b^ghklbpbdeh\
Ghj^oZmaZZlZd`_g_dhlhju_^jm]b_f_oZgbafu
KjZam ihke_ \u[hjh\ ke_^m_l i_jbh^ m`_klhq_gby iheblbdb ijh\h^bfhc ijZ\bl_evkl\hf fhg_lZjghc beb
nbkdZevghc < l_jfbgZo fh^_eb wlh khhl\_lkl\m_l ihl_jyf ba[bjZl_e_c I_j_^ hq_j_^gufb \u[hjZfb gZ[ex^Z_lky
iheblbdZjZkrbj_gbyhgZkhhl\_lkl\m_lmqZkldm]^_ba[bjZl_evihemqZ_lfZdkbfZevgucmjh\_gv^hoh^Z
LZdgZijbf_ji_j_^\u[hjZfbij_ab^_glZ\]jZkrbjbl_evgZynbkdZevgZyiheblbdZkhhl\_lkl\h\ZeZmqZkldm
k fZdkbfZevgufb \u]h^Zfb ^ey ba[bjZl_e_c H[kem`b\Zgb_ \hajhkr_]h ^he]Z b \ukhdb_ klZ\db ijhp_glZ hdZaZebkvl_fb
kZfufb f_oZgbafZfb k\yau\Zxsbfb ihl_jb ba[bjZl_e_c b \u]h^u ^_ckl\mxs_]h ijZ\bl_evkl\Z hl i_j_ba[jZgby
ij_ab^_glZ; ?evpbgZ
Ih^h[gZyko_fZlZd`_jZkijhkljZgy_lkybgZf_oZgbafuk\yaZggu_kh[tykg_gb_fiheblbq_kdbo^_eh\uopbdeh\
q_j_a hlkmlkl\b_ bgnhjfZpbb m ba[bjZl_e_c hlghkbl_evgh lbiZ ijZ\bl_evkl\Z gZijbf_j [eZ]hgZf_j_gghklb
IjZ\bl_evkl\hi_j_^\u[hjZfbijh\h^blfZdkbfZevghqbklhiehlgmxiheblbdm^_fhgkljbjmyk\hx[eZ]hgZf_j_gghklv
Kms_kl\m_lebhilbfZevgucklhqdbaj_gbyba[bjZl_eykjhdgZdhlhjucke_^m_l\u[bjZlviheblbdh\"
18.4.2
HilbfZevguciheblbq_kdbc^_eh\hcpbde
DZdbf h[jZahf kjhd ijZ\e_gby \eby_l gZ \u[hj kljZl_]bb iheblbdh\" Ihkljhbf nmgdpbb ^bkdhglbjh\Zgguo
ihlhdh\ j_glu ^ey ^\mo kljZl_]bc\aZ\bkbfhklbhl∆^ebl_evghklbkjhdZi_j_ba[jZgby:gZeblbq_kdb_\ujZ`_gbym`_
ihemq_gugZfb\ur_ijbjZkkfhlj_gbbkljZl_]bciheblbdh\
<hafh`gh g_kdhevdh kemqZ_\ \aZbfgh]h jZkiheh`_gby nmgdpbc ^bkdhglbjh\Zgguo ihlhdh\ GZ jbk 18.2
bah[jZ`_gZ kblmZpby ijb dhlhjhc wdkihg_gpbZevguc mqZklhd djb\hc ^he]h\j_f_ggh]h ij_[u\Zgby i_j_k_dZ_l
ihklhygghcmqZklhddjb\hc[ukljhcgZ`b\u
@bjghcebgb_cgZjbkmgd_bah[jZ`_gZ\_jogyyh]b[ZxsZy^eywlbo^\modjb\uoHgZihdZau\Z_l\u[hjiheblbdZ
\ aZ\bkbfhklb hl kms_kl\mxs_c \_ebqbgu ∆ DZd \b^gh \ kemqZ_ dh]^Z ∆ ij_\urZ_l hij_^_e_ggmx ∆*205, - iheblbd
ij_^ihqblZ_l bkihevah\Zlv kljZl_]bx [ukljhc gZ`b\u Wlhl wnn_dl \hagbdZ_l ihlhfm qlh ijb m\_ebq_gbb kjhdh\
\u[hjh\∆kljZl_]by^he]h\j_f_ggh]hij_[u\ZgbygZqbgZ_lijbghkblv\kzf_gvrmxbf_gvrmx\u]h^m\lh\j_fydZd
kljZl_]by[ukljhcgZ`b\uijb^hklZlhqgh\ukhdboagZq_gbyo∆m`_g_aZ\bkblhl^ebl_evghklbkjhdZihkdhevdm[m^_l
ijb\h^blvdbfibqf_glm
V
KljZl_]by
^he]h\j_f_ggh]hij_[u\Zgby
x max
δ
x**
−δ
x max
(1 − e xmax )
δ
KljZl_]by
[ukljhcgZ`b\u
x*/xmax x**/xmax ∆*
∆
Jbk Nmgdpbb^bkdhglbjh\Zgguoihlhdh\j_gl^ey^\mokljZl_]bc\aZ\bkbfhklbhl^ebl_evghklbkjhdZ
\u[hjh\
KblmZpby \ dhlhjhc wdkihg_gpbZevguc mqZklhd djb\hc ^he]h\j_f_ggh]h ij_[u\Zgby i_j_k_dZ_l ihklhygghc mqZklhd
djb\hc[ukljhcgZ`b\u
>jm]hc kemqZc jZkkfhlj_g gZ jbkmgd_ < ^Zgghc kblmZpbb iheblbd [m^_l \u[bjZlv kljZl_]bx [ukljhc
gZ`b\u _sz ^h kblmZpbb bfibqf_glZ ld _sz \hajZklZxsb_ \u]h^u hl ihemq_gby fZdkbfZevghc j_glu aZ i_j\uc kjhd
m`_ij_\urZxl\u]h^uhl^he]h\j_f_ggh]hij_[u\Zgby
Ijbwlhf∆e_`bl\bgl_j\Ze_hl[[max ^h[[maxqlh\lhqghklbkhhl\_lkl\m_lkemqZxjZkkfhlj_gghfm\i
18.4.1.
>ey \u\h^Z ZgZeblbq_kdh]h \ujZ`_gby ∆ g_h[oh^bfh ijbjh\gylv nmgdpbb ^bkdhglbjh\Zgguo ihlhdh\ IhemqZ_fh_ \ujZ`_gb_
ljm^ghh[hajbfhbij_^klZ\ey_lg_fgh]hkh^_j`Zl_evgh]hbgl_j_kZ
205
KljZl_]by
^he]h\j_f_ggh]hij_[u\Zgby
V
x max
δ
x**
−δ
x max
(1 − e xmax )
δ
KljZl_]by
[ukljhcgZ`b\u
x*/xmax ∆*
x**/xmax
∆
Jbk Nmgdpbb^bkdhglbjh\Zgguoihlhdh\j_gl^ey^\mokljZl_]bc\aZ\bkbfhklbhl^ebl_evghklbkjhdZ
\u[hjh\
KblmZpby \ dhlhjhc wdkihg_gpbZevguc mqZklhd djb\hc ^he]h\j_f_ggh]h ij_[u\Zgby i_j_k_dZ_l wdkihg_gpbZevguc
mqZklhddjb\hc[ukljhcgZ`b\u
L1 =
<ebygb_i_jbh^ZijZ\e_gbygZiheh`_gb_ba[bjZl_e_c
Hij_^_ebfdZdh_\ebygb_hdZau\Z_lbaf_g_gb_^ebl_evghklbkjhdh\ijZ\e_gbygZiheh`_gb_ba[bjZl_e_c
>eywlh]hihkljhbfnmgdpbbihl_jv^eyba[bjZl_ey
Nmgdpbyihl_jb^eyba[bjZl_eydh]^Ziheblbd\u[bjZ_lkljZl_]bx^he]h\j_f_ggh]hij_[u\Zgby
ijb∆ < x*/ xmax
xmax + EC/∆
(18.8)
ijb∆ ≥ x*/ xmax
(x*+EC)/∆
l_/–wlhihl_jbmkj_^g_ggu_ih\j_f_gb
Nmgdpbyihl_jvhij_^_ey_lkyke_^mxsbfh[jZahf
KblmZpbb∆ < x*/ xmax khhl\_lkl\mxlkemqZxdh]^ZiheblbdihemqZy\_kvkjhdomaxi_j_ba[bjZ_lkygZke_^mxsbc
kjhd Ijb wlhf dZ`^uc fhf_gl \j_f_gb ihl_jb ^ey ba[bjZl_ey khklZ\eyxl [max b d gbf ^h[Z\eyxlky ihl_jb \u[hjh\
ijb\_^_ggu_dh^ghfmfhf_glm\j_f_gbkf jbk klj_edZ
>jm]hc kemqZc ijb ∆ ≥ x*/ xmax \hagbdZ_l dh]^Z aZ kjhd \u[hjh\ iheblbd \ khklhygbb iheghklvx ihemqblv o
ihwlhfmkj_^gb_ihl_jbaZi_jbh^[m^mlkdeZ^u\Zlvkybah[sboihl_jvobaZljZlgZ\u[hju?Kkf jbk klj_edZ
Ihl_jb^eykemqZydh]^Ziheblbd\u[bjZ_lkljZl_]bx[ukljhcgZ`b\uaZibku\ZxlkydZd
ijb∆ ≤ x**/ xmax
xmax + EC/∆
L2 =
(18.9)
xmax + IC/(x**/xmax) = xmax (1+ IC/x**)
ijb∆ > x**/ xmax
L
3
xmax(1+IC/x**)
L2
4
1
xmax(1+EC/x**)
xmax
L1
2
x*/xmax ∆1
x**/xmax
∆
Jbk Ihl_jb^eyj_ij_a_glZlb\gh]hba[bjZl_eyijbjZaebqguokjhdZo\u[hjh\(Lkhhl\_lkl\m_lihl_jyfijb
\u[hj_iheblbdhfkljZl_]bb^he]h\j_f_ggh]hij_[u\ZgbyL2 –[ukljhcgZ`b\u
Ihkljhbf nmgdpbx ihl_jv ba[bjZl_ey hl kljZl_]bb [ukljhc gZ`b\u iheblbdh\ L KblmZpby ∆ ≤ x**/ xmax –
kemqZcdh]^ZkjhdaZdZgqb\Z_lkyjZgvr_q_fgZklmiZ_lbfibqf_glLh]^ZdZ`^ucfhf_gl\j_f_gbba[bjZl_evl_jy_lxmax b
ihke_bkl_q_gbykjhdZke_^mxl\u[hjukba^_j`dZfbECkf jbk klj_edZ
<kemqZ_dh]^Z∆ > x**/ xmax, iheblbd\ugm`^_gmclb\hlklZ\dmjZgvr_kjhdZ∆bijbwlhfba^_j`dbi_j_\u[hjh\
jZ\gyxlkyICkf jbk klj_edZ
Hij_^_e_gb_hilbfZevgh]hkjhdZiheblbq_kdh]h^_eh\h]hpbdeZ
Ihijh[m_f hij_^_eblv hilbfZevguc k lhqdb aj_gby ba[bjZl_e_c kjhd \u[hjh\ J_r_gb_ h[ hilbfZevghf kjhd_
[m^_fbkdZlvZgZebabjmy\u[hjkljZl_]bbiheblbdh\b\ebygbb_]hgZiheh`_gb_ba[bjZl_ey
>eywlh]hgZfgm`ghfbgbfbabjh\Zlvnmgdpbxihl_jvba[bjZl_eyBkihevamyf_lh^h[jZlghcbg^mdpbbgZqbgZ_f
gZr ZgZeba k dhgpZ kqblZy ∆ nbdkbjh\Zgguf hij_^_ebf hilbfZevgmx kljZl_]bx ^ey iheblbdZ kf jbk 18.2). AgZy
nmgdpbxj_ZdpbbiheblbdZgZmklZgh\e_gguckjhd∆fbgbfbabjm_fihl_jbba[bjZl_ey
GZbemqr_f khklhygb_f ^ey ba[bjZl_e_c [ueh [u khklhygb_ dh]^Z iheblbd \u[bjZe kljZl_]bx ^he]h\j_f_ggh]h
ij_[u\Zgbylh]^Zg_h[oh^bfh[ueh[umklZgh\blvfZdkbfZevgh\hafh`gh_∆H^gZdhfZdkbfZevgh\hafh`guf∆[m^_l
∆kf jbk ihke_ij_\ur_gbydhlhjh]hiheblbdij_^ihql_lbkihevah\ZlvkljZl_]bx[ukljhcgZ`b\u
AZf_lbf qlh \hafh`gZ kblmZpby ijb dhlhjhc kjhd i_j_ba[jZgby ∆ b iheblbd \u[bjZ_l kljZl_]bx
^he]h\j_f_ggh]hij_[u\ZgbydhlhjZyg_\k_]^Zy\ey_lkygZbemqrbfj_r_gb_f
<kemqZ_dh]^Z∆* < ∆1206 (cfjbk^eyba[bjZl_ey[m^_l\u]h^ghm\_ebqb\Zlv∆^h[[maxWlhijb\_^_ld
lhfm qlh iheblbdb i_j_dexqZlky gZ kljZl_]bx [ukljhc gZ`b\u H^gZdh lZdZy kblmZpby [m^_l \kz `_ \u]h^g__ q_f
i_j\h_j_r_gb_k∆ = ∆bkljZl_]bb^he]h\j_f_ggh]hij_[u\Zgby
Wlh h[tykgy_lky l_f qlh ihl_jb ^ey ba[bjZl_ey hl qZklguo i_j_\u[hjh\ h^gh]h b lh]h `_ iheblbdZ [m^ml
ij_\urZlvihl_jbdhlhju_[ueb[u\kemqZ_[he__j_^dhckf_gujZaguoiheblbdh\^Z`_ijbmkeh\bbqlhdZ`^ucbagbo
\kzk\h_\j_fyijZ\e_gbyiheghklvxihemqZe[u[max).
LZdbfh[jZahf\hafh`gu^\ZdeZkkZj_r_gbc\aZ\bkbfhklbhlkhhlghr_gbciZjZf_ljh\
I_j\uc deZkk j_r_gbc \j_fy i_j_\u[hjh\ ^he`gh \u[bjZlvky \ lhqd_ \ dhlhjhc ihlhd i_jbh^bq_kdbo hl
\u[hjh\d\u[hjZf^bkdhglbjh\Zgguoj_gl[m^mljZ\gylvkyfZdkbfZevghfm^bkdhglbjh\Zgghfmihlhdmj_gluihemq_gghc
aZh^bgkjhd∆ = ∆biheblbd\u[bjZ_lkljZl_]bx^he]h\j_f_ggh]hij_[u\Zgby
<lhjhc deZkk j_r_gbc ijb (∆1 > ∆*)207, ijb dhlhjhf \ kemqZ_ bkihevah\Zgbb j_r_gby i_j\h]h deZkkZ ∆ = ∆*)
ba^_j`dbhlqZkluoi_j_\u[hjh\ij_\urZxlba^_j`dbhlihl_jvk\yaZgguokg_^Zevgh\b^ghklvxiheblbdh\ijbwlhf
j_r_gb_f[m^_lmklZgh\e_gb_kjhdZi_j_\u[hjh\\lhqd_ihke_dhlhjhcihke_^h\Ze[ubfibqf_gl∆ = x**/xmax).
LZdbf h[jZahf hilbfZevghc ^ey ba[bjZl_e_c y\ey_lky \ [hevrbgkl\_ kemqZ_\ kblmZpby ijb dhlhjhc iheblbd
bkihevam_l iheblbdm ^he]h\j_f_ggh]h ij_[u\Zgby b ebrv \ bkdexqbl_evguo kemqZyo h]jhfguo ba^_j`_d ijh\_^_gby
\u[hjh\ ^ey ba[bjZl_ey hilbfZevgufb klZgh\ylky kljZl_]bb [ukljhc gZ`b\u iheblbdh\ Ijb wlhf gb \ h^ghf ba
hilbfZevguokhklhygbcg_^he`gh\hagbdZlvkblmZpbbkbfibqf_glhf<h\lhjhfkemqZ_ljZgkZdpbhggh]hihjh]Z\u[hju
^he`guijhoh^blvijyfhi_j_^kblmZpb_c\ug_k_gbybfibqf_glZ
Ihke_^gxx kblmZpbx ijhZgZebabjm_f [he__ ih^jh[gh HgZ ij_^klZ\ey_l ^ey gZk hkh[uc bgl_j_k ihkdhevdm
g_ihkj_^kl\_gghk\yaZgZkkh[ulbyfbijhbkoh^b\rbfb\Jhkkbb\]dh]^Z=hkm^Zjkl\_ggZy>mfZ[ueZm`_gZklZ^bb
\ug_k_gbybfibqf_glZij_ab^_glm; ?evpbgm
18.4.3
G_^hklh\_jghklvm]jhaubfibqf_glZ
JZkkfhljbf wnn_dl \hagbdZxsbc \ kblmZpbb dh]^Z g_h[oh^bfh ijh\h^blv bfibqf_gl l_ kemqZc dh]^Z
gZdhie_ggZyj_glZ^hklb]eZoh^gZdh^hhdhgqZgbykjhdZhklZ_lkyg_fgh]h\j_f_gbbihl_jbk\yaZggu_kbfibqf_glhf
[m^ml ^Z`_ \ur_ q_f _keb ij_^hklZ\blv iheblbdm \hafh`ghklv ^h`blv ^h ke_^mxsbo \u[hjh\ aZ[bjZy ijb wlhf
fZdkbfZevgmxj_glm
KblmZpby\dhlhjhc
IC – EC > xmax (∆ - x**/xmax) = xmax∆ - x**,
(18.11)
oZjZdl_jbam_lkyg_^hklh\_jghklvxm]jhaubfibqf_glZ
<u[hjkljZl_]bbih\_^_gbyiheblbdhfijbg_^hklh\_jghklbm]jhaubfibqf_glZ
<kemqZ_dh]^Z\uihegy_lkymkeh\b_l_^hihegbl_evgu_ba^_j`dbgZi_j_ba[jZgb_IC – EC\ur_q_f
\hafh`gu_ ihl_jb hl j_glhhjbglbjh\Zggh]h ih\_^_gby xmax (∆ - x**/xmax iheblbd fh`_l h`b^Zlv qlh _fm g_ [m^_l
h[ty\e_g bfibqf_gl ^Z`_ ijb ij_\ur_gbb bf gZdhie_gghc j_glu o ld ijh\h^blv bfibqf_gl [m^_l g_ \ bgl_j_kZo
ba[bjZl_e_c<l_hjbbb]jih^h[gu_kblmZpbbgZau\Zxlkyg_^hklh\_jghcm]jhahcQRQFUHGLEOHWKUHDW
DZd^Zggh_h]jZgbq_gb_ih\eby_lgZ\u[hjiheblbdhfkljZl_]bbih\_^_gby"
>eyiheblbdZwlh[m^_lhagZqZlvqlhwdkihg_gpbZevgucmqZklhddjb\hc[ukljhcgZ`b\u[m^_lijh^he`Zlvky^h
∆ < (x** +IC-EC)/xmaxZg_^h∆ < x**/xmaxdZd[ueh\kemqZ_^hklh\_jghklbbfibqf_glZ
Ihke_^kl\byihdZaZgugZjbkmgd_
L1(∆1) = L2 (x**/xmax),
∆gZoh^blkybamkeh\by
(x*+EC)/∆ [PD[(&[l_
(15.10).
∆1 = (x*+EC) / [xmax (1+ EC/x**)]
207
>ZgguckemqZcfugZah\_fljZgkZdpbhggufihjh]hfldih^h[gZykblmZpbykms_kl\m_lebrvba-aZgZebqbyba^_j`_d\u[hjh\
206
KljZl_]by
^he]h\j_f_ggh]hij_[u\Zgby
V
x max
δ
x**
−δ
x max
(1 − e xmax )
δ
1
KljZl_]by
[ukljhcgZ`b\u
∆* x**/xmax
(x**+IC-EC)/xmax
∆
Jbk <ebygb_g_^hklh\_jghklbm]jhaubfibqf_glZgZ\u[hjkljZl_]bbiheblbdhf@bjghcimgdlbjghcebgb_c
ihdZaZgmqZklhddjb\hc\hagbdZxsbcijb^Zgghfwnn_dl_
Klj_ehqdhckf jbk ihdZaZgmqZklhddjb\hc\hagbdZxsbcijbg_^hklh\_jghklbm]jhaubfibqf_glZLZdbf
h[jZahf iheblbdm hdZau\Zxlky ^hklmigu khklhygby k gZdhie_gghc j_glhc ij_\urZxs_c o h^gZdh ijb m\_ebq_gbb ∆
\ur_q_fx** +IC-EC)/xmax[m^_lgZ[ex^ZlvkyjZaju\nmgdpbb^bkdhglbjh\Zggh]hihlhdZj_gluk\yaZggucki_j_oh^hf
gZijhp_^mjmbfibqf_glZ
Ihl_jbba[bjZl_ey\kblmZpbbg_^hklh\_jghklbm]jhaubfibqf_glZ
>ey h[s_kl\Z \uiheg_gb_ mkeh\by hagZqZ_l qlh \ dZ`^uc ba[bjZl_evguc kjhd _keb \hagbdZ_l kblmZpby
dh]^Z iheblbd i_j_[bjZ_l o ba[bjZl_ev g_ klZg_l ijbgbfZ_l j_r_gb_ h[ bfibqf_gl_ ld \hagbdZxsb_ ijb wlhf
ihl_jb[m^mlij_\urZlvfZdkbfZevgu_ihl_jbdhlhju_fh`_lijbqbgblv^Zgguciheblbd^hhdhgqZgbykjhdZ
Ijbwlhfbaf_gblkynhjfZdjb\hcihl_jvLlZdbfh[jZahfqlh_zihklhyggucmqZklhdgZqg_lkyebrvkhagZq_gby
∆ = (x** +IC-EC)/xmax.
GZ ]jZnbd_ wlh [m^_l \u]ey^_lv ke_^mxsbf h[jZahf kf jbk Klj_ehqdhc kf jbk ihdZaZg mqZklhd
djb\hc \hagbdZxsbc ijb g_^hklh\_jghklb m]jhau bfibqf_glZ IehsZ^v aZrljboh\Zgguo ijyfhm]hevgbdh\ gZ jbk h^bgZdh\ZbjZ\gZIC-ECl_\ub]jurmhli_j_oh^Zijhp_^mjubfibqf_glZdijhp_^mj_klZg^Zjlgh]hi_j_ba[jZgby
L
L2
xmax(1+IC/x**)
xmax(1+EC/x**)
1
xmax
∆1 ∆2 x**/xmax (x**+IC-EC)/xmax
∆
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LZf`_K– 398.
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qZklbqghbaZbfkl\m_fhibku\Z_fucfZl_jbZeCapoglu G. Prices, Profits and Financial Structures. A Post-Keynesian Approach to Competition.
Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1992. Ch. 3.
223
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Kaufmann D., Kraay A. Zoido-Lobatón P. Governance Matters // World Bank. Policy Research Working Paper 2196. 1999.
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>hfhohayckl\Z\i_j_oh^ghcwdhghfbd_gZjugdZoljm^Zihlj_[bl_evkdbo[eZ]bnbgZgkh\bgklblmpbhgZevgucih^oh^
=eZ\Z HKH;?GGHKLBJHKKBCKDHCWDHGHFBQ?KDHCF?GL:EVGHKLB
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
GZpbhgZevgZywdhghfbq_kdZyf_glZevghklvdZdbgklblml
2.1.1
2.1.2
Kh^_j`Zgb_bkljmdlmjZgZpbhgZevghcwdhghfbq_kdhcf_glZevghklb
W\hexpbywlgheh]bq_kdbo\haaj_gbc\Jhkkbbb\h\k_ffbj_
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
Fh[bebaZpbhggh-dhffmgZevgZyijhba\h^kl\_ggZykj_^Z]^_dZie_cev_rvkykfZkkZfb
IjZ\hkeZ\gZyohayckl\_ggZywlbdZ«dhlhjhc\k__s_g_l
Kbevgh_]hkm^Zjkl\hb^h]hgyxsZyfh^_jgbaZpby
+RPRVRYHWLFXVbnZdlhju_]hnhjfbjh\Zgby
Ijhreh_lhedm_lgZk
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5
>eyq_]hgZ^hbaf_jylv^mrmJhkkbb"
JughqgZyij_^jZkiheh`_gghklvjhkkbckdhcdmevlmju
Jhkkbyf_`^mdhee_dlb\bafhfbbg^b\b^mZebafhf
Jhkkbyf_`^mk\h[h^hcbZ\lhjblZjbafhf
Jhkkbyf_`^mklZ[bevghklvxbjbkdhf
2.4.1
2.4.2
Lbiheh]bygZpbhgZevguofh^_e_cwdhghfbdbdZdijh_dpbylbiheh]bbohayckl\_gguodmevlmj
ImlvJhkkbb–imlvgZ<hklhd"
NZdlhjuknhjfbjh\Z\rb_jhkkbckdmxwdhghfbq_kdmxf_glZevghklv
Khpbhf_ljbq_kdZyoZjZdl_jbklbdZwdhghfbq_kdhcf_glZevghklbjhkkbyg
Jhkkby–?\jZabybeb:abhiZ"
=eZ\Z BG>B<B>UB>HFHOHAYCKL<:<GH<HFBGKLBLMPBHG:EVGHFIJHKLJ:GKL<?
G?JUGHQGH?IJBKIHKH;E?GB?DJUGDM
3.1
3.2
3.3
Hkgh\gu_q_jlukh\j_f_ggh]hbgklblmpbhgZevgh]hijhkljZgkl\Zgh\u_\hafh`ghklbbgh\u_h]jZgbq_gby
L_hjbyljZgknhjfZpbhggh]hijhp_kkZhf_kl_km[t_dlh\fbdjhmjh\gy\bgklblmpbhgZevguobaf_g_gbyo
Kh\j_f_ggucZ^ZilZpbhggucijhp_kkbijh[e_fubgklblmpbhgZebaZpbbgh\uoijZ\bijZ\beb]ju
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.3.4
Lbiheh]byfbdjhkm[t_dlh\\aZ\bkbfhklbhlmjh\gybj_amevlZlb\ghklbZ^ZilZpbb
>hfhohayckl\hbbg^b\b^\u[hj_^bgbpuZgZebaZ
FZkkh\u_Z^ZilZpbhggu_kljZl_]bbbijh[e_fubgklblmpbhgZebaZpbbgh\uoijZ\bijZ\beb]ju
Kh\j_f_ggucZ^ZilZpbhggucijhp_kkbi_jki_dlb\ubgklblmpbhgZevguoi_j_f_g
=eZ\Z IH<?>?GB?>HFHOHAYCKL<G:JUGD?LJM>:
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
?^bgbpuZgZebaZljm^h\h]hih\_^_gby^hfhohayckl\
Hkh[_gghklbljm^h\h]hih\_^_gbygZ_fguojZ[hlgbdh\
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
IhklZgh\dZijh[e_fu
JZaebqby\kljmdlmjZo^hfhohayckl\
F_klhjZ[hlu\kbkl_f_`bag_gguop_gghkl_cbfhlb\Zpby\u[hjZij_^ijbylby
G_nhjfZevgu_h]jZgbqbl_ebfZdkbfbaZpbhgguohjb_glZpbcjZ[hlgbdh\
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
FZjrjmluih\_^_gby[_ajZ[hlguo
Kihkh[uijh_dlbjh\Zgby[_ajZ[hlgufbk\h_c`bag_gghckblmZpbb
Kihkh[uij_h^he_gbyljm^ghkl_c\ua\Zgguo[_ajZ[hlbp_c
;_ajZ[hlgu_qe_gu^hfhohayckl\\ihbkdZogh\hcaZgylhklb
Fh^_ebih\_^_gby^hfhohayckl\gZjhkkbckdhfjugd_ljm^Z
=eZ\Z IHLJ?;E?GB?BK;?J?@?GBY>HFHOHAYCKL<F?@>MIJ?KLB@GUFIHLJ?;E?GB?F
GH<UOJMKKDBOB:KD?LBAFHFGH<UO;?>GUO
5.1
5.2
>hfhohayckl\ZdZdbgklblmpbhgZevgu_ij_^ijbgbfZl_ebkljmdlmjZ\g_rgb_\hafh`ghklbbh]jZgbqbl_eb
5.1.1
5.1.2
KljmdlmjZ^hfhohayckl\
<g_rgb_\hafh`ghklbbh]jZgbqbl_eb
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
>h[u\Zgb_[_]kl\hbaahguwdhghfbq_kdhcg_klZ[bevghklb
JZkoh^h\Zgb_ihlj_[e_gb_
KhojZg_gb_gZdhie_gb_
<u`b\Zgb_YHUVXVjZa\blb_
BgklblmpbhgZevgu_baf_g_gby\mijZ\e_gbbj_kmjkZfb
=eZ\Z IJH;E?FUNHJFBJH<:GBYKJ?>G?=HDE:KK:<JHKKBB
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
Kj_^gbcdeZkkJhkkbbf_lh^heh]bq_kdb_ih^oh^udbkke_^h\Zgbx
J_kmjkujhkkbckdh]hkj_^g_]hdeZkkZ
G_dhlhju_oZjZdl_jbklbdbkhpbZevguokljZl_]bckhpbZevgh-ijhn_kkbhgZevguo]jmiiihl_gpbZevgh]hkj_^g_]hdeZkkZ
Dj_Zlb\gh-ghjfZlb\gucihl_gpbZebi_jki_dlb\ukj_^g_]hdeZkkZ\Jhkkbb
Q:KLVNBJFUKH<J?F?GGHCJHKKBB
=eZ\Z BGKLBLMPBHG:EVGUC:G:EBANBJFUH;S:YO:J:DL?JBKLBD:
G_hdeZkkbq_kdZyljZdlh\dZnbjfunbjfZdZdq_jgucysbd
DhgljZdlgZyijbjh^Znbjfugh\ucbgklblmpbhgZevgucih^oh^
G_hbgklblmpbhgZevgucih^oh^dlbiheh]bbnbjf
7.1
7.2
7.3
=eZ\Z =?G?ABKJHKKBCKDHCNBJFU<IHKLKH<?LKDHFBGKLBLMPBHG:EVGHFIJHKLJ:GKL<?
:[khexlgu_bhlghkbl_evgu_ijZ\Zkh[kl\_gghklb
BgklblmpbhgZevgZykj_^ZdhlhjZynhjfbjm_lnbjfu
8.1
8.2
8.2.1
8.2.2
8.2.3
KjZ\gbl_evgZyoZjZdl_jbklbdZbgklblmpbhgZevghckj_^unbjfu\kh\_lkdhcbihklkh\_lkdhcwdhghfbd_
<ebygb_bgklblmpbhgZevghckj_^ugZdhgljZdlgu_kh]eZr_gbykh\_lkdZywdhghfbdZ
<ebygb_bgklblmpbhgZevghckj_^ugZdhgljZdlgu_kh]eZr_gbyihklkh\_lkdZywdhghfbdZ
8.3.1
8.3.2
Eh]bdZbgklblmpbhgZevguobaf_g_gbcbgklblmpbhgZevgu_ljZgkZdpbb
NbjfZdZdkm[t_dlbgklblmpbhgZevguobaf_g_gbc
Nbjfudhlhju_nhjfbjmxlbgklblmpbhgZevgmxkj_^m
8.3
=eZ\Z HLDM>:IHR?EJHKKBCKDBC;BAG?KBEBD:D<HAGBDE:WDHGHFBD:NBABQ?KDBO
EBP
;bag_k\kh\_lkdhcohayckl\_gghckbkl_f_
Nhjfbjh\Zgb_jughqguobgklblmlh\\kh\_lkdhcl_g_\hcwdhghfbd_
9.1
9.2
9.2.1
9.2.2
9.2.3
9.2.4
I_kkbfbklbq_kdb_dhgp_ipbbl_g_\uojugdh\\KKKJ
Hilbfbklbq_kdb_dhgp_ipbbl_g_\uojugdh\\KKKJ
>\hcghc^mZebafkh\_lkdhcwdhghfbdb
Jhevkh\_lkdbol_g_\uobgklblmlh\\ihklkh\_lkdbci_jbh^
9.3.1
9.3.2
9.3.3
9.3.4
9.3.5
9.3.6
9.3.7
I_j\uc[ebg–dhfhfj_nhjfZ]
<lhjZyihiuldZj_nhjfj_nhjfZ]
I_j\u_j_amevlZluj_nhjfZ]
J_ZgbfZpbye_]Zevgh]h[bag_kZj_nhjfu–]]
Ihke_^gbcdeZiZgj_nhjfu]
AZ\_jr_gb_\hajh`^_gbye_]Zevgh]h[bag_kZj_nhjfu]
Ijb\ZlbaZpby–]]b__blh]b
Nhjfbjh\Zgb_jughqguobgklblmlh\\kh\_lkdhce_]Zevghcwdhghfbd_
9.3
=eZ\Z BAF?G?GBYKIJHK:G:IJ:<:KH;KL<?GGHKLBG?HBGKLBLMPBHG:EVGUC:G:EBA
IJB<:LBA:PBB
10.1
10.2
Ihq_fm\hagbdZ_lkijhkgZbaf_g_gbyijZ\kh[kl\_gghklb"
KijhkgZjZafulu_ijZ\Zkh[kl\_gghklb-1998)
10.2.1
10.2.2
10.3
KijhkgZjZafulu_ijZ\Zkh[kl\_gghklb\kh\_lkdhcwdhghfbd_-1991)
BgklblmpbhgZevgucrhdb_]hihke_^kl\by-1998)
KijhkgZki_pbnbdZpbxbaZsblmijZ\qZklghckh[kl\_gghklb-2003)
=eZ\Z IJ?>IJBGBF:L?EBBG:?FGU?J:;HLGBDBDHGNEBDLUBDHGK?GKMKU<
IHKLKH<?LKDHCNBJF?
11.1
Fhlb\Zpbyljm^ZgZ_fguojZ[hlgbdh\
11.1.1
11.1.2
11.1.3
11.1.4
11.1.5
11.1.6
11.2
Hkh[_gghklbgZpbhgZevghcaZjZ[hlghcieZlu
11.2.1
11.2.2
11.3
Dhgnebdlubdhgk_gkmku
NZdlhjumkbe_gbyiZl_jgZebafZbij_^ihkuedbjZa\blbyiZjlg_jkl\Z\ljm^h\uohlghr_gbyo
Ihklkh\_lkdb_ijhnkhxaudZdbgklblmlljm^h\h]hihkj_^gbq_kl\Z
11.4.1
11.4.2
11.4.3
11.4.4
11.4.5
11.4.6
11.4.7
11.5
AZjZ[hlgZyieZlZ\JhkkbbnhjfZevgZyp_gZjZ[hq_ckbeubebg_nhjfZevgh_khpbZevgh_ihkh[b_\Jhkkbb"
Hkgh\gZyp_evj_nhjfbjh\ZgbyhieZluljm^Z
IZl_jgZebklkdbckhxagZ_fguojZ[hlgbdh\bij_^ijbgbfZl_e_c
11.3.1
11.3.2
11.4
KljmdlmjZboZjZdl_jhkgh\guoijh[e_fbfhlb\h\ljm^ZjZ[hqbo
Hkgh\gu_ih^oh^udbkke_^h\Zgbxfhlb\Zpbb
Lbiufhlb\Zpbb
KbeZfhlb\Zpbb
Qlhfh`_l[ulvemqr_ohjhr_caZjieZlu"
Ij_h^he_gebdjbabk\fhlb\Zpbbljm^Z"
Ijhnkhxau–rdheZdhffmgbafZbebdZiblZebafZ"
IjhnkhxagZybg\_jkby
J_kmjkuljm^h\h]hihkj_^gbq_kl\ZbbojZkij_^_e_gb_
Lbiuijhnkhxaguohj]ZgbaZpbcgZkh\j_f_gguojhkkbckdboij_^ijbylbyoijhnkhxauohjhrb_bjZagu_
IjhnkhxadZdkhpbZevguchl^_egZ^hihfhqvZ^fbgbkljZpbb
DZdmfbjZxlijhnkhxau\k_ihkl_i_gghmljykehkv
Ihklkh\_lkdb_ijhnkhxaugh\u_bgklblmpbhgZevgu_jZfdb
Kdjulu_klhjhgukdjulhc[_ajZ[hlbpukhpbZevgucZfhjlbaZlhjbebwdhghfbq_kdbclhjfha"
11.5.1
11.5.2
KdjulZy[_ajZ[hlbpZ\JhkkbbgZke_^b_bebijbh[j_l_gb_"
KdjulZy[_ajZ[hlbpZdZdkhpbZevgh-wdhghfbq_kdZyijh[e_fZ
=eZ\Z WDHGHFBD:;:JL?J:<JHKKBBHLQ:KLGH=HY<E?GBYDH;S?KL<?GGHFMBGKLBLMLM
12.1
Khhlghr_gb_f_`^m^_g_`ghcb[Zjl_jghcwdhghfbdhcbgklblmpbhgZebklubihkld_cgkbZgpuijhlb\g_hdeZkkbdh\
12.1.1
12.1.2
12.1.3
12.1.4
12.1.5
12.2
JhkkbckdZyi_j_oh^gZywdhghfbdZdZd[Zjl_jgh_ohayckl\h
Khhlghr_gb_f_`^m[Zjl_jghcb^_g_`ghcwdhghfbdZfbg_hdeZkkbq_kdbcih^oh^
Ihkld_cgkbZgkdZyl_hjby^_g_`ghcwdhghfbdb
Ihkld_cgkbZgkdbcih^oh^dZgZebam[Zjl_jghcwdhghfbdbb[Zjl_jbaZpbbohayckl\Z
Ihq_fmjhkkbckdZyi_j_oh^gZywdhghfbdZklZeZ[Zjl_jgufohayckl\hf"
;Zjl_jdZdnhjfZkms_kl\h\Zgbyg_wnn_dlb\guoij_^ijbylbc
12.2.1
12.2.2
12.2.3
12.2.4
12.2.5
12.2.6
Kh\_lkdb_dhjgbkh\j_f_gghcjhkkbckdhc[Zjl_jghcwdhghfbdb
Jhkkbckdb_wdhghfbq_kdb_bgklblmlu–m]h^eb\uckem]Zg_jZ^b\h]hohaybgZ"
;Zjl_jbg_ieZl_`bjhev_kl_kl\_gguofhghihebc
;Zjl_jdZdkj_^kl\h^bkdjbfbgZpbbwnn_dlb\gh]hbg_wnn_dlb\gh]hijhba\h^bl_ey
;Zjl_jdZdijhy\e_gb_k_jhcwdhghfbdb
;Zjl_jb\hkijhba\h^kl\hg_wnn_dlb\ghckljmdlmjuwdhghfbdb
12.2.7
12.3
Dhfm\u]h^_g[Zjl_j?
Ihbkdiml_cij_h^he_gby[Zjl_jbaZpbb
12.3.1
12.3.2
12.3.3
12.3.4
>_nbpbl^_g_`guokj_^kl\bf_lh^u[hjv[ukgbf
<ihbkdZo^_g_`gh]hbklhqgbdZ (case-study)
;Zjl_jgu_hlghr_gbybwnn_dlb\ghklvmijZ\e_gq_kdboj_r_gbcwdki_jbf_glZevgu_jZkq_lu
I_jki_dlb\ujZa\blby[Zjl_jghcwdhghfbdb
=eZ\Z IJ:<HKBEU<F?KLHKBEUIJ:<:BEBWDHGHFBD:JWD?L:
13.1
M]jhaZijZ\Zfkh[kl\_gghklb\e_]Zevghf[bag_k_]jZ[ysb_jmdb\f_klhg_\b^bfhcjmdb
13.1.1
13.1.2
13.2
Ij_iylkl\by^eye_]ZevghcaZsbluijZ\kh[kl\_gghklb
13.2.1
13.2.2
13.2.3
13.2.4
13.2.5
13.3
;Zg^bldZdaZsblgbdijZ\kh[kl\_gghklb
AZsblZ[bag_kf_gh\–^_ehjmdkZfbo[bag_kf_gh\
E_]Zevgu_kljZ`bihjy^dZ\jhebg_e_]ZevguoaZsblgbdh\ijZ\kh[kl\_gghklb
<u[hjij_^ijbgbfZl_e_fhilbfZevgh]hbgklblmlZaZsbluijZ\kh[kl\_gghklb
Hj]Zgbah\ZggZyij_klmighklv–]hkm^Zjkl\h\]hkm^Zjkl\_"
13.5.1
13.5.2
13.5.3
13.5.4
13.5.5
13.6
G_]Zlb\gucbfb^`jhkkbckdh]h[bag_kZ
DjbfbgZevghklvjhkkbckdh]h[bag_kZ
Jhevwdhghfbq_kdhcdmevlmju\jZa\blbbij_^ijbgbfZl_evkl\Z
Wlbq_kdZyhp_gdZij_^ijbgbfZl_evkl\Z\jhkkbckdhcwdhghfbq_kdhcdmevlmj_
DjbfbgZevghklv[bag_kZdZdke_^kl\b_dmevlmjheh]bq_kdh]hkl_j_hlbiZ
G_e_]ZevgZyaZsblZijZ\kh[kl\_gghklb
13.3.1
13.3.2
13.3.3
13.4
13.5
JmdbmijZ\eyxsb_jugdhf
QvbjmdbrZjyl\dZjfZg_ij_^ijbgbfZl_ey"
Ij_klmigZyhj]ZgbaZpbydZdnbjfZ
Ij_klmigh_khh[s_kl\hdZdl_g_\h_ijZ\bl_evkl\h
Ij_klmigZyhj]ZgbaZpbydZdh[sbgZ
Wdhghfbq_kdZyw\hexpbyhj]Zgbah\Zgghcij_klmighklb
Q_fhj]Zgbah\Zgg__ij_klmighklvl_femqr_^eyh[s_kl\Z
<ae_lbiZ^_gb_m]heh\gh]hjwd_lZ
13.6.1
13.6.2
Hj]Zgbah\ZggZyij_klmighklv\KKKJ\hju\aZdhg_dZddjbfbgZevgh_ijZ\bl_evkl\h
I_j_kljhcdZ\h[s_kl\_–i_j_kljhcdZ\fZnbbhldjbfbgZevgh]hijZ\bl_evkl\Z–dk_lbdjbfbgZevguonbjf
Q:KLV=HKM>:JKL<H<KH<J?F?GGHCJHKKBB
=eZ\ZHKGH<UBGKLBLMPBHG:EVGH=HIH>OH>:D:G:EBAMJHEB=HKM>:JKL<:
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
:gZebabgklblmpbhgZevghckj_^udZdhlijZ\ghcimgdlbgklblmpbhgZevgh]hih^oh^Zdbamq_gbxjheb]hkm^Zjkl\Z
Kmsghklvbhkgh\gu_nmgdpbb]hkm^Zjkl\Z\jughqghcwdhghfbd_klhqdbaj_gbybgklblmpbhgZevgh]hih^oh^Z
=hkm^Zjkl\h\i_j_oh^ghcwdhghfbd_dZd]_g_jZlhjbgklblmpbhgZevghckj_^u
Ijh[e_fZbgklblmpbhgZevghcg_Z^_d\Zlghklbjhkkbckdh]h]hkm^Zjkl\Z
=eZ\ZJ?<HEXPBYK<?JOMB?,IHKE?>KL<BY
15.1
15.2
15.3
BgklblmludhfZg^gh-Z^fbgbkljZlb\ghcwdhghfbdb
Fh^_jgbaZpbykbkl_fu\jZfdZoklZjhckljmdlmju
J_nhjfbjh\Zgb_j_nhjfdhgljj_\hexpbyk\_jom"
15.3.1
15.3.2
15.4
15.5
G_h[oh^bfhklvjZ^bdZebaZpbbj_nhjf
IheblbdZnbgZgkh\hcklZ[bebaZpbb
J_amevlZlubgklblmpbhgZevguobaf_g_gbc\Jhkkbb-o]h^h\
Dgh\hcl_hjbbj_nhjf
15.5.1
15.5.2
IhiuldZj_ZebaZpbb<Zrbg]lhgkdh]hdhgk_gkmkZ
BgklblmpbhgZevgucih^oh^dl_hjbbj_nhjf
=eZ\ZG:A:>DQ:KLGHCKH;KL<?GGHKLBBEB<I?J?>DQ:KLGHCKH;KL<?GGHKLB"
16.1
16.2
HklZlhqgZy]hkm^Zjkl\_ggZykh[kl\_gghklvdZdwdhghfbq_kdbcbgklblml
HklZlhqgZy]hkm^Zjkl\_ggZykh[kl\_gghklvijh[e_fuwnn_dlb\gh]hmijZ\e_gby
16.2.1
16.2.2
16.2.3
16.2.4
16.3
16.4
Wdhghfbq_kdZyijbjh^Zbnmgdpbb]hkm^Zjkl\_gghckh[kl\_gghklb
KljmdlmjbaZpbyh[t_dlh\]hkm^Zjkl\_gghckh[kl\_gghklb
MijZ\ey_fhklvh[t_dlh\]hkkh[kl\_gghklb
Ihbkdwnn_dlb\guof_oZgbafh\mijZ\e_gby]hkm^Zjkl\_gghckh[kl\_gghklvx
GZaZ^dqZklgh-]hkm^Zjkl\_gghcghf_gdeZlmjghckh[kl\_gghklb"
<i_j_^dqZklghckh[kl\_gghklb"
=eZ\Z=HKM>:JKL<H<K?H;S?=HI?J?J:KIJ?>?E?GBY
17.1
=hkm^Zjkl\_ggh_hljZke_\h_j_]mebjh\Zgb_\ihklkh\_lkdhcJhkkbb
17.1.1
17.1.2
17.1.3
17.1.4
17.1.5
17.2
BgklblmpbhgZevgu_eh\mrdbgZimlbklZgh\e_gby[x^`_lgh]hn_^_jZebafZ
17.2.1
17.2.2
17.2.3
17.2.4
17.3
Ijbqbguj_]mebjh\Zgby
J_]mebjh\Zgb_gZjmr_gb_ijZ\kh[kl\_gghklbbebki_pbnbq_kdbcdhgljZdl"
Kihkh[uZ^ZilZpbbj_]mebjm_fuonbjf
Hkh[_gghklbj_]mebjh\Zgby\Jhkkbb
DZdhlj_]mebjh\Zlvkbkl_fmj_]mebjh\Zgby
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17.3.1
17.3.2
17.3.3
17.3.4
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18.1
18.2
18.3
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18.3.1
18.3.2
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18.4
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18.4.1
18.4.2
18.4.3
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19.1
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19.1.1
19.1.2
19.1.3
19.1.4
19.1.5
19.2
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19.2.1
19.2.2
19.2.3
19.2.4
19.3
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19.3.1
19.3.2
19.3.3
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1.
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