Document 4228932

Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение
высшего профессионального образования
«Алтайская государственная академия образования
имени В.М. Шукшина»
Н.Г. Виноградова
Е.В. Панькина
Практическая грамматика
английского языка
Учебное пособие
ББК 81.2 (Англ.)
В 48
Печатается по решению
редакционно-издательского совета
Алтайской государственной академии образования
имени В.М. Шукшина
Рецензент: кандидат педагогических наук, доцент кафедры
английского языка ФГБОУ ВПО «АГАО им. В.М.
Шукшина» О.М. Липустина (г. Бийск).
Виноградова, Н.Г.
Практическая грамматика английскoгo языка [Текст] : учебное
пособие для бакалавров / Н.Г. Виноградова, Е.В. Панькина;
Алтайская гос. Академия образования им. В.М. Шукшина. –
Бийск: ГОУ ВПО «АГАО», 2015. – 107 c. – 50 экз.
Издание предназначено для студентoв 2 курса oчнoгo отделения и
студентов заoчнoгo oтделения факультета инoстранных языкoв. Методическое
пособие включает в себя теорию и практические задания по темам курса
практической грамматики для самостоятельной работы студентов.
 ФГБОУ ВПО «АГАО»,
2015.
 Н.Г. Виноградова, 2015.
2
CONTENTS
Preface ................................................................................................. 4
The subjunctive mood
Mood……………………………………………………………………5
The subjunctive mood in simple sentences ............................................ 6
The subjunctive mood in complex sentences ........................................ 15
Practical exercises………………………………………………………26
The modal verbs ................................................................................... 42
Can,/could ........................................................................ 42
May/ Might ..................................................................... 45
Must/to be to/ to have to…………………………………48
Need……………………………………………………...53
Ought to/should………………………………………….56
Dare………………………………………………………60
Practical exercises………………………………………………………89
The non-finite forms of the verb..........................................................109
The Infinitive………………………………………….…109
The Gerund………………………………………………117
The Participle………………………………………..…..129
Practical exercises………………………………………………………145
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Preface
The need to improve on pedagogical grammars must be
recognized with regard to theoretical insight and practical
needs. This practical course is devoted to the latter ones.
The material of the course conforms to the demands of
the state programme standard and contains the following
sections: “The Subjunctive Mood”, “The Modal Verbs”, “The
Non-Finite Forms of the Verbs”. The textbook consists of three
parts and contains practical grammar exercises in the grammar
topics mentioned. It is intended for the full-time students of the
second course and part-time students of the senior courses of
the faculty of foreign languages.
“Practical English Grammar” is intended as a handbook
for students of English, learners who are interested in the way
in which the grammatical system of the English language can
be described, understood and used.
4
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
1. MOOD
Mood is a grammatical category which indicates the
attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb
from the point of view of its reality.
In Modern English we distinguish three moods:
1) The Indicative Mood
2) The Imperative Mood
3) The Subjunctive Mood
THE INDICATIVE MOOD
The Indicative Mood shows that the action or state
expressed by the verb is presented as a fact.
e.g.
We went home early in the evening. (Dickens)
The Indicative Mood is also used to express a
real condition or a condition the realization of which is
considered possible.
e.g.
If it rains, I shall stay at home.
If Catherine disobeys us, we shall disinherit her.
(Eliot)
THE IMPERATIVE MOOD
The Imperative Mood expresses a command or a
request. In Modern English the Imperative Mood has only one
form which coincides with the infinitive without the -particle
to; it is used in the second person (singular and plural).
e.g.
Be quiet and hear what I tell you. (Eliot)
Please put the papers on the table by the bed.
(Hemingway)
In forming the negative the auxiliary verb to do is
always used, even with the verb to be.
e.g.
Hush! Don't make a noise! (Eliot)
Don't be angry... (Hemingway)
5
The auxiliary verb to do may also be used in affirmative
sentences to make the request more emphatic.
e.g. But now, do sing again to us. (Eliot)
To make a request or an order more emphatic the
subject expressed by the pronoun you is sometimes used. It is
characteristic of colloquial speech.
e.g. I'll drive and you sleep awhile. (Hemingway)
A command addressed to the third person singular
and plural is usually expressed with the help of the verb to let.
e.g. Let the child go home at once. Пусть ребенок
сейчас же идет домой. Let the children go home at
once. Пусть дети сейчас же идут домой.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
The Subjunctive Mood shows that the action or state
expressed by the verb is presented as a non-fact, as something
imaginary or desired. The Subjunctive Mood is also used to
express an emotional attitude of the speaker to real facts.
In Modern English the Subjunctive Mood has synthetic
and analytical forms.
e.g.
I wish I were ten years older," I said. (Braine)
«Хотел бы я быть на десять лет старше», —
сказал я.
I wish you would speak rationally. (E. Bronte)
Я хотел бы, чтобы вы говорили разумно.
The synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood
can be traced to the Old English period, when the Subjunctive
Mood was chiefly expressed by synthetic forms. In Old English
the Subjunctive Mood had a special set of inflections, different
from those of the Indicative.
In course of time most of the inflections were lost and
the difference between the forms of the Subjunctive and those
6
of the Indicative has almost disappeared. However, in Modern
English there are a few synthetic forms of the Subjunctive
which have survived; they are as follows: the Present
Subjunctive of all the verbs and the Past Subjunctive only of
the verb to be.
I. The Present Subjunctive. In the Present Subjunctive
the verb to be has the form be for all the persons singular and
plural, which differs from the corresponding forms of the
Indicative Mood (the Present Indefinite). In all other verbs the
forms of the Present Subjunctive differ from the corresponding
forms of the Indicative Mood only in the third person singular,
which in the Present Subjunctive has no ending -s.
The Present Subjunctive denotes an action referring to
the present or future. This form is but seldom used in Modern
English. It may be found in poetry and in elevated prose, where
these forms are archaisms used with a certain stylistic aim. It is
also used in scientific language and in the language of official
documents, where it is a living form.
e.g.
Though all the world be false, still will 1 be true.
(Trollope)
Даже если весь мир будет лживым, все же я
буду правдива.
The Present Subjunctive also occurs in some set
expressions,
e.g.
Be it so!
Пусть будет так! Да будет так!
God forbid!
Боже упаси! Сохрани бог!
In American English the Present Subjunctive is used not
only in the above mentioned cases but also in colloquial
language.
7
e.g.
Yates called the hospital and insisted that
one of the doctors come to the phone. (Шут)
Йейтс позвонил в госпиталь и потребовал,
чтобы кто-нибудь из врачей подошел к
телефону.
П. The Past Subjunctive. In the Past Subjunctive the
verb to be has the form were for all the persons singular and
plural, which in the singular differs from the corresponding
form of the Indicative Mood (the Past indefinite). Occasionally
the form was, which coincides with the form of the
indicative Mood, can be found in the singular.
e.g. I know I am affectionate. I wouldn't say it, if I
wasn't certain that I am. (Dickens).
The Past Subjunctive is widely used in Modern English
and occurs not only in literature but also in colloquial
language.
The term “Past Subjunctive” is merely traditional as in
Modern English it does not necessarily express a past action. In
adverbial clauses of condition it denotes an unreal condition
referring to the present or future. In other types of subordinate
clauses it denotes an action simultaneous with the action
expressed in the principal clause; thus it may refer to the
present and to the past.
e.g
(Bennett)
If I were ill I should like to be nursed by you.
Если бы я был болен, я бы хотел, чтобы
за мной ухаживали вы.
I want to go everywhere, I wish I were a gipsy.
(Galsworthy)
Мне хочется всюду побывать. Я хотела бы
быть цыганкой.
8
The analytical forms of the Subjunctive Mood consist
of the mood auxiliaries should, would, may (might) or shall
(which is seldom used) and the infinitive of the notional verb.
e.g.
Yates wished Bing would stop thanking .him,
but Bing went on. (Heym)
Йейтсу хотелось, чтобы Бинг перестал
благодарить его, но Бинг все благодарил.
Whoever you may be, Sir, I am deeply grateful
to you. (Dickens)
Кто бы вы ни были, сэр, я вам глубоко
признателен.
I propose that you shall come along ,with me.
(Dickens)
Я предлагаю вам пойти со мной.
Mood auxiliaries have developed from modal verbs,
which have lost their modality and serve to form the analytical
Subjunctive. Still there are cases when mood auxiliaries retain
a shade of modality, for instance the verb might in adverbial
clauses of purpose.
e.g.
Lizzie stood upon the causeway that her father
might see her. (Dickens)
Лиззи стояла па "дамбе, чтобы отец увидел
ее (мог увидеть ее).
THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
I. SIMPLE SENTENCES
In simple sentences the synthetic forms of the
Subjunctive Mood are more frequent than the analytical forms.
In simple sentences the Subjunctive Mood is used:
(1) to express wish (пожелание):
e.g.
Long live the Queen! Да здравствует
Королева!
Success attend you! Да сопутствует вам успех!
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То express wish the analytical subjunctive with the
mood auxiliary may is also used.
e.g.
May
success
attend
you!
Да
сопутствует вам успех!
May you live long and die happy!
Желаю вам долго жить и быть
счастливым до конца своих дней.
(2) to express an unreal wish:
e.g. If only he were free! (Galsworthy) Если бы
только он был свободен!
(3) in oaths and imprecations:
e.g. Manners be hanged! К черту всякие
церемонии!
(4) in some expressions:
e.g.
Suffice It to say that... Достаточно
сказать, что…
Be it so! Да будет так!
God forbid! Боже упаси!
Far be it from me… У меня и в мыслях
не было…
The Subjunctive Mood in simple sentences is
characteristic of literary style, except in oaths and
imprecations, which belong to low colloquial style.
II. COMPLEX SENTENCES
The Subjunctive Mood is used in conditional sentences
to express a real or unreal condition. Subordinate clauses of
such sentences are usually introduced by the conjunctions if, in
case, provided, unless, suppose.
According to the time reference and the type of a
condition there are Subjunctive I, Subjunctive II, Subjunctive
10
III, Mixed Subjunctive and Zero Subjunctive. The three main
types of the Subjunctive Mood can be traced in the table 1.
PRESENT \ FUTURE
SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE
PRINCIPAL
CLAUSE
If it looks like rain,
If I have more time,
If he is working on
Friday
we'll stay at home.
I'll come over.
he won't be able to
go with us.
Present Ind./Cont.
will + Inf.
If I were you,
I would go there
myself.
I would come over.
You wouldn’t think
so.
I could go out.
If I had more time,
If you knew him better,
If it were not raining,
Past Ind./Cont.
would
could + Inf.
might
If you had gone there,
you would have seen
him.
we could have gone
to the South.
If it hadn't been so hot
last summer,
Past Perfect
PAST
UNREAL
SUBJUNCTIVE III
SUBJUNCTIVE II
REAL
SUBJUNCTIVE I
Table 1.
T CONDIY TION
P
E
would
could + have
Participle II
might
11
+
Subjunctive I.
Subjunctive I is used to express real condition. The
subordinate clause саn refer to the present or the future. We
usually find if + Present Indefinite in the subordinate clause
and will + bare infinitive in the principal clause.
e.g.
If it rains, we will stay at home.
The Conditional clause can come before or after the
main clause. We use a comma at the end of the Conditional
clause when it comes first:
e.g.
If you don't try harder, you will fail
You will fail if you don't try harder.
Other structures are possible depending on what yon
want to say:
Subordinate clause
Principal clause
If + Present Simple
modal verb
If you behave yourself,
you can come.
If + Present Simple
to be going to
If you don't work
you are going to fail.
If + Present Simple
imperative
If you need anything,
ask.
If + Present Continuous
will + bare infinitive
If + Present Perfect
will + bare infinitive
If I have finished,
I’ll be able to come.
If + Present Perfect
modal verb
If you have finished,
you can go out.
Imperative
and / or + will
Eat less
and you’ll get slim.
Subjunctive II.
We use Subjunctive II to describe unlikely situations in the
present or future:
Subordinate clause
Principal clause
12
If+ Past Simple
If I had enough money,
would
I would retire.
Instead of would we can use other modal verbs.
e.g. If I lost my job, I might go abroad for a while.
Compare Subjunctive I and Subjunctive II:
e.g. If I lose my job, I'll find life very difficult (there is
possibility – Subjunctive I).
If I lost my job, I would find life very difficult (there is no
evidence – Subjunctive II).
Unreal conditions may be also expressed in the
following ways:
a) But for + noun / pronoun
e.g.But for the rain, we would go down to the
country.
Если бы не дождь, мы бы поехали за город.
b) If it were not for + noun / pronoun
had not been for
e.g. If it were not for your help, I wouldn’t be
able to finish my work in time.
Если бы не ваша помощь…
If it hadn't been for me, they would have never found
the place.
Если бы не я…
Zero Subjunctive
We use Zero Subjunctive to show that one action, result, etc.
always follows another. We often use when for if.
Subordinate clause
Present Simple
If / When water freezes,
Principal clause
Present Simple
it turns to ice.
13
When I travel by boat,
I am always sick.
(just) in сазе
This means “because it is possible that…” and usually comes
after the principal clause:
e.g. Paul will bring you a sweater in case it gets cold.
provided (that); as long as
These phrases suggest that there is one vital condition:
e.g. Provided you rest, you will make a full recovery.
unless
We can use unless to replace if… not in conditional sentences .
After unless, we use a Present tense to talk about the future:
e.g.
Unless you leave now, you will be late.
You will be late unless you go now.
Subjunctive III
We use the Subjunctive III to talk about аn event or
situation that did not happen in the past:
Subordinate clause
Principal
clause
If+ Past Perfect
would + Perfect
If Bruce had asked me,
I would have said “yes”.
e.g. If I had not become a teacher, I would have liked
to be an actor.
Notice how we can make either clause negative, with
changes m the meaning:
If I had taken an umbrella, I wouldn't have got wet. (= but I
did get wet)
If I hadn't taken an umbrella, 1 would have got wet. (= but I
didn't get wet)
14
Both clauses can be negative:
They wouldn't have missed their plane if they hadn't
woken up late. (- but they did wake up late, and they did miss
their plane)
Instead of would, we can use could or might modal verbs
in the main clause:
If you would asked, I could have told you the answer.
I might have gone to the party If I had known about it.
Mixed Subjunctive
Sometimes we make sentences which mix Subjunctive II
and Subjunctive III, especially when a past event has an effect
in the present:
e.g. If you hadn't invited me, I wouldn't have gone to the
party. (= I did go to the party – Subordinate III)
If you hadn't invited me, I wouldn't be here now.
(= I'm at the party now – Subjunctive II and
Subjunctive III)
The Subjunctive Mood in subject clauses
The Subjunctive mood is used in subject clauses after a
principal clause of the type It is necessary, It is important, etc.
The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should is
used for all persons.
It
It
It
It
It
It
is (was) necessary
is (was) important
is (was) right
is (was) requested
is (was) recommended
is (was) obligatory
that he should come.
15
It is (was) better (best)
It is (was) of vital importance
e.g. It was necessary that the child's history should
be known to none. (Trollope)
Надо было, чтобы историю этого ребенка никто не
узнал.
It was desirable that she... should marry this earnest,
well-to-do and respectable man. (Hardy)
Было желательно, чтобы она... вышла замуж за
этого серьезного, состоятельного и солидного
человека.
The Subjunctive Mood in object clauses
The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses:
(a) When the predicate of the principal clause is
expressed by the verb to wish. If the action expressed in the
object clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause
the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is used; with other verbs
the same meaning is expressed by the Past Indefinite of the
Indicative Mood.
e.g.
I wish I were a girl again. (E. Bronte)
Я хотела бы быть снова девочкой.
I wish she felt as I do. (E. Bronte)
Я бы хотела, чтобы она чувствовала то же,
что и я.
If the action expressed in the object clause is prior to
that of the principal clause the Past Perfect of the Indicative
Mood is used.
e.g.
Auntie, I wish I had not done it. (Twain)
Тетя, мне очень жаль, что я это сделал.
The moment Aileen had said this she
wished she had not.
(Dreiser)
16
Как только Эйлин это сказала, она пожалела
об этом.
The above examples show that such sentences are often
translated by mentis of как жаль, мне жаль.
The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary
would (for all persons) is also used in object clauses after the
verb to wish. This form is used only in sentences referring to
the present or future; it is possible only if the subject of the
principal clause is not the same as the subject of the object
clause. It is chiefly used in sentences expressing request or
annoyance.
e.g.
I wish you would stay with me for a while.
(Voynich)
Я бы хотел, чтобы вы побыли немного со
мной.
With the verb to be this form is hardly ever used.
(b) The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses
introduced by the conjunction lest if in the principal clause the
predicate is expressed by a verb denoting fear. The mood
auxiliary should is used for all persons.
e.g.
She fears (feared) lest she should be blamed.
Она боится (боялась), как бы ее не осудили.
Не trembled lest his secret should be
discovered.
Он дрожал при мысли, что его тайна будет
раскрыта.
After verbs denoting fear object clauses are often
introduced by the conjunction that, in which case the Indicative
Mood is used, often with the modal verb may (might).
e.g.
She fears (feared) that she will (would) be
blamed.
She fears (feared) that she may (might) be
blamed.
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(c) The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses when
we find verbs and word-groups denoting order, suggestion,
advice, desire, etc. in the principal clause. The analytical
subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should (for all persons) is
used.
He orders (ordered)
He suggests (suggested)
He proposes (proposed)
He demands (demanded)
should be ready by 5.
He desires (desired)
He insists (insisted)
He is anxious (was anxious)
He will see (he saw) to it
e.g.
that everything
Mrs. Linton insisted that Isabella should go to
bed. (E. Bronte) Миссис Линтон настаивала
на том, чтобы Изабелла легла спать.
She (Agnes) proposed to my aunt that we should
go upstairs and see my room. (Dickens)
Она предложила моей тетушке, чтобы мы
пошли наверх и посмотрели мою комнату.
The Subjunctive Mood in attributive appositive clauses
The Subjunctive Mood is used in attributive appositive
clauses modifying the nouns wish, suggestion, aim, idea, etc.
The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should {for
ail persons) is used.
e.g.
His suggestion that everybody should take part
in the work was reasonable.
18
The Subjunctive Mood in attributive clauses
The Subjunctive Mood is also used in attributive
clauses modifying the noun time in the principal clause It is
lime, It is high time. In this case the Past Subjunctive of the
verb to be is used; with other verbs the same meaning is
expressed by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood.
e.g.
It is time we went home. Нам пора идти
домой.
It is high time we went home. Нам давно пора
идти домой.
Now then, children. It's high time you were
washed and dressed.
(Mansfield)
Ну, дети, давно пора умываться и одеваться.
The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary
should is also possible, though less common.
e.g.
It is time we should go home.
The Subjunctive Mood in predicative clauses
The Subjunctive Mood is used in predicative clauses
when:
(a) introduced by the conjunctions as if, as though, when we
find the link verbs to be, to feel, to took, to seem, etc. in the
principal clause.
If the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous
with that of the principal clause the Past Subjunctive of the
verb to be is used; with other verbs the same meaning is
expressed by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood.
If the action of the subordinate clause is prior to that of
the principal clause the Past Perfect of the Indicative Mood is
used.
19
e.g.
I feel as if we were back seven years, Jon.
(Galsworthy)
У меня такое чувство, как будто мы
вернулись на семь лет назад, Джон.
... now I feel as if you had never been away.
(Shaw)
Теперь у меня такое чувство, как будто вы и
не уезжали.
The house looked as though it had been
deserted for weeks.
(Wells)
У дома был такой вид, точно в нем уже
много недель никто не жил.
(b) when the subject of the principal clause is expressed by an
abstract noun such as wish, suggestion, aim, idea, etc.
In this case the analytical subjunctive with the mood
auxiliary should (for all persons) is used:
e.g.
Mary's wish was that... our mother should come
and live with
her. (A. Bronte)
Мэри хотелось, чтобы наша мать переехала к
ней жить,
One of the conditions was that I should go
abroad. (Swinnerton)
Одно из условий заключалось в том, чтобы я
поехал за границу.
The Subjunctive Mood in adverbial clauses of purpose
When a clause of purpose is introduced by the
conjunctions that, so that, in order that, we find the analytical
subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may (might) if the
principal clause refers to the present or future; if the principal
clause refers to the past, only the form might is used.
20
e.g.
She opens (will open) the window that she may
(might) get a breath of fresh air.
Не got up, cautiously, so that he might not
wake the sleeping boy. (Cronin) Он тихо
поднялся, чтобы не разбудить спящего
мальчика.
Occasionally the mood auxiliary should is used.
e.g.
I made shorthand notes of all that she said,
however, so that there should be no possibility
of a mistake. (Conan Doyle)
Я стенографическую запись всего, что
она говорила, чтобы исключить
возможность ошибки.
If a clause of purpose is introduced by lest the mood
auxiliary should (for all persons) is generally used. Lest has a
negative meaning (чтобы не).
e.g.
She opens (opened, will open) the window lest it
should be stuffy
in the room.
The Subjunctive Mood in adverbial clauses of concession.
Adverbial clauses of concession are introduced by the
conjunctions and connectives though, although, however, no
matter, whatever, whoever, etc. The analytical subjunctive with
the mood auxiliary may (might) is generally used.
e.g.
Though he may (might) be tired
Tired though he may (might) be
No matter how tired he may (might) be
However tired he may (might) be
he will go to the concert
21
Как бы он ни был утомлен, он пойдет на
концерт.
Remember, the truth, however ashamed of it you
may be, is
better than any lie. (Dreiser)
Помните, что правда, как бы вы ни стыдились ее,
лучше, чем любая ложь.
I must return to the city, no matter what dangers
may lurk there. (Dreiser)
Я должен вернуться в город, какие бы опасности ни
поджидали меня там.
If the action of the subordinate clause is prior to that of
the principal clause the Perfect Infinitive is generally used.
e.g. However badly he may have behaved to you in the
past he is still your brother. (Wilde)
Как бы плохо он ни вел себя по отношению к вам в
прошлом, он все же ваш брат.
The Indicative Mood is used in adverbial clauses of
concession when the action or state is considered as an actual
fact and not as something supposed.
Compare:
Cold though it may be, w-e shall go to the skating-rink
(Subjunctive Mood).
Как бы ни было холодно, мы пойдем на каток.
Cold as it is, we shall go to the skating-rink (Indicative Mood).
Как ни холодно, мы пойдем на каток.
22
The Subjunctive Mood in adverbial clauses of comparison
(or manner)
The adverbial clauses of comparison or manner are
introduced by the conjunctions as if and as though (the latter is
more literary).
If the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous
with that of the principal clause the Past Subjunctive of the
verb to be is used; with other verbs the same meaning is
expressed by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood.
e.g.
She speaks (spoke) about him as if she knew
him well.
Она говорит (говорила) о нем так, как будто
она его хорошо
знает (знала).
She greeted him as if he were her brother.
(Galsworthy)
Она поздоровалась с ним так, как будто он
был ее братом.
If the action of the subordinate clause is prior to that of
the • principal clause the Past Perfect of the Indicative Mood is
used.
e.g.
She speaks (spoke) about him as if she had
known him for years.
Она говорит (говорила) о нем так, как будто
знает (знала) его
много лет.
She shook hands with him as though they had
known each other
all their lives... (Trollope)
Они пожали друг другу руки, как будто
были знакомы всю
жизнь.
23
The Subjunctive Mood in adverbial clauses
of time and place
Adverbial clauses of time and place can be introduced by the
conjunctions whenever and wherever; in these cases the clauses
have an additional concessive meaning.
e.g. Whenever you may (might) come, you are
welcome.
Когда бы вы ни пришли, мы вам всегда рады.
Wherever she may (might) live, she will always find
friends.
Где бы она ни жила, она всегда найдет друзей.
The emotional use of the Subjunctive Mood
The Subjunctive Mood may be used to express an
emotional attitude of the speaker to real facts. Here we always
find the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should,
which in this case is often called the “emotional should”. If
priority is expressed the Perfect Infinitive is used. In this case
the Subjunctive Mood is rendered in Russian by the Indicative
Mood.
The emotional should occurs in different kinds of
subordinate clauses; the principal clause in such cases contains:
(a) An adjective expressing astonishment, incredulity, regret,
joy, such as strange, wonderful, unnatural, impossible,
fortunate, unfortunate, etc.
e.g.
It is strange I should never have heard him
even mention your name. (Austen)
Странно, что я никогда даже не слышала,
чтобы он упоминал
ваше имя.
It is impossible that she should have said it.
Не может быть (невозможно), чтобы она это
сказала.
24
(b) A noun with the same meaning: wonder, pity, shame, etc.
e.g.
He is such a charming man that it is quite a pity
he should be so grave and so dull. (Austen)
On такой чудесный человек; как жаль, что он
такой серьезный и скучный.
(c) The principal clause may be of the following type: I
am sorry, glad, pleased, vexed, etc.
e.g.
I am sorry you should take such needless
trouble. (Ch. Bronte)
Мне очень жаль, что вы берете на себя такие
ненужные заботы.
I am so vexed... that such a thing should have
been discussed before that child. (Reade)
Мне так досадно, что подобный .вопрос
обсуждался при ребенке.
The Subjunctive Mood with the emotional should may
also occur in such sentences as:
Why should you and J talk about it? (Dickens)
К чему нам с вами говорить об этом?
I was still busy, when who should come in but Caddy!
(Dickens)
Я была еще занята, как вдруг вошла — кто бы вы
думали? — Кэдди!
25
Practical exercises
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD IN SIMPLE SENTENCES
Exercise 1. Analyse the form of the verb in the following
sentences. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. If only he were younger!
2. Oh, that anybody could understand me!
3. Oh, were she less conceited!
4. If only what you say were true!
5. If there were the slightest possibility of his coming!
6. If only someone could have helped him then! But no, they
all preferred to stay away.
7. Oh, that you had learned the news yesterday! It is too late
now.
8. If only Laurie were really happy with him!
9. If only they had been happy when they when married!
10. If only somebody had recognized me! But after all those
years it seemed all but impossible.
11. Oh, that I had believed his story before, Roger. Everything
would be quite different now.
12. If only you knew!
13. She's a good nurse. If only she didn't boss her patients
around!
14. If only he were not so difficult to follow!
Exercise 2. Use the correct form of the infinitives in brackets.
1. If only he (to have) something interesting to do!
2. If only they (not to bother) him now!
3. If only he (not to fall) into their trap then!
4. If only he (not to be) so silly!
5. Oh, that he (to help) her! But how could he, if she wouldn't
accept his support?
6. If she (not to write) so much to her old pattern! The book
could be more enjoyable then.
26
7. If only he (not to be) in pain! 8. If only the play (to come
off) more quickly!
9. Oh, that he (to get) this appointment!
10. If only she (not to be) such a friendless failure when a
child!
11. Oh, if we (to get rid of) that house long ago!
12. If there (to be) the slightest chance of her ever seeing my
point of view!
13. If only he (to stop) sobbing his heart out! It's most
depressing.
14. If only we (to spot) the trouble then! We could have
avoided much grief.
15. If only someone (to understand) how he was suffering!
16. Oh, (to be) he less strict with his children!
17. Oh, that he (to stop) himself in time! Oh, that he (not to
ask) that silly question!
18. If only he (to give) some rest!
Exercise 3. Complete the following sentences.
1. If only my parents ... .
2. If only the travellers ... .
3. Oh, that the driver ... .
4. If only my teachers at school ... .
5. If only the surgeon ... .
6. If only the actors ... .
7. If only the authorities ... .
8. Oh, that the police ... .
9. Oh, that the nurse ... .
10. If only her face ... .
Exercise 4. Translate into Russian.
1. I shall go to the theatre if I buy tickets.
2. If she doesn't come in time they'll be late for the concert.
27
3. If I get tickets for the evening performance in advance I'll
ring you up.
4. He will write a letter today if he has free time.
5. Will you call me up if you come back early?
6. If you don't tell me the truth I shall never speak to you.
7. If you go to bed immediately we'll take you to the cinema
tomorrow.
8. If they take a taxi they won't miss the train.
9. If you lend him the book he'll read it quickly.
10. The child will catch cold if he stays longer in the wind.
11. I'll finish the work in time if you stop interrupting me.
12. If I get money I'll buy this watch.
13. If you don't leave me at once I'll start crying.
Exercise 5. Complete the following sentences.
1. If she cuts her hair short ... .
2. If the boy takes after his father ... .
3. If he grows a beard ... .
4. If her dress is ready in time for the party ... .
5. If she wears her new dress ... .
6. If the woman pays more attention to her appearance ... .
7. If you arrange your hair in a different way .... .
8. If the girl makes up heavily .... .
9. If you describe your sister to me ... .
10. If the hat is becoming her ...
11. If you try these shoes on ... .
Exercise 6. Supply the following sentences with suitable if clauses.
1. ... I'll work as a teacher.
2. ... she'll take her exam next week.
3. ... you'll improve your spelling.
4. ... we'll get these books in the library.
5. ... the students will copy the verse.
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6. ... the lecture will begin in an hour.
7. ... you won't pass your exams.
8. ... my brother will begin to study Spanish.
10. ... they'll finish the translation in time.
11. ... I'll be able to prepare the text.
12. ... you'll get good marks.
13. ... we'll write the test-paper.
Exercise 7. Reword the sentences according to the example.
Example:
Come home in time or else Mother will be angry
with you.
If you don't come home in time, Mother will be
angry with you.
1. Listen to the teacher attentively or else you won't
understand anything.
2. Work at the language laboratory or else you won't improve
your intonation.
3. Do your homework properly or else the teacher won't be
pleased with you.
4. Read these books or else you won't be able to prepare a
good report.
5. Speak English every day or else you won't master it.
6. Help her with English or else she won't pass her exam.
7. Do your best or else you won't catch up with the group.
8. Explain the rule to him or else he'll make more mistakes.
9. Put down your homework or else you won't remember it.
10. Lend her some money or else she won't buy this dictionary.
Exercise 8. Read and translate the jokes.
1) Tom: What would you do if you were in my shoes?
Tim: I should polish them.
29
2) Wife: Darling, where would you go for a holiday if you
could afford it?
Husband: I would go somewhere I’ve never been to.
Wife: Well, how about the kitchen?
3) A nervous passenger approached the captain and asked
him: “What would happen if we struck a large
iceberg?” The captain answered: “The iceberg would
pass on as if nothing had happened”. The old lady was
very much relieved.
Exercise 9. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Если пойдет дождь, нам придется искать укрытие.
2. Если мороз усилится, дети останутся дома.
3. Вы простудитесь, если промочите ноги.
4. Если подует сильный ветер, вы замерзнете в своем
легком пальто.
5. Если погода ухудшится, они отложат свою поездку за
город.
6. Будет сильный дождь, если ветер не разгонит эти тучи.
7. Если лето не будет теплым, я останусь в городе, но не
поеду на дачу.
8. Вы будете очень расстроены, если густой туман
помешает вам увидеть наш город?
9. Если весь снег растает сразу, на улицах будет слякоть и
грязь.
10. Если хорошая погода сохранится, мы поедем в
воскресенье в лес за грибами.
11. Вы не получите никакого удовольствия, если начнет
моросить дождь.
12. Дети будут только рады, если они попадут под ливень.
30
13. Если сегодня не будет очень ветрено, мы погуляем с
вами по городу.
14. Фермеры быстро уберут урожай, если погода не
изменится.
15. Если будет солнечная погода, она пойдет на пляж.
Exercise 10. Read the following sentences. Translate them into
Russian.
1. If you spoke English every day you would speak it better.
2. If he improved his spelling he would get better marks.
3. If you were more attentive you wouldn't make so many
mistakes.
4. If I were interested in the topic I'd choose it for my coursepaper.
5. If she worked regularly she wouldn't have any difficulties
with English.
6. If I were you I'd study Spanish.
7. If I knew Spanish I should read Spanish books in the
original.
8. If you were practising hard you would improve your
intonation.
9. If they wanted to get rid of their mistakes they would work
more at the language laboratory.
10. If you wanted to speak grammatically, you would study
books of grammar and the writing of the best authors.
11. If the subject were of interest for me, I should look through
his articles.
12. If you didn't pass the exam, would you take it again?
Exercise 11. Supply the necessary forms of the Subjunctive
Mood for the verbs in brackets. Refer the sentences to the
Present.
1. If she ... of the article now I ... it to the newspaper (approve,
send).
31
2. If he ... they ... the letter in the wall newspaper {'want,
publish).
3. If the work ... twice as difficult, I ... to do it (be, refuse).
4. If we ... him to go on with the experiment, we never ... any
peace (allow, have).
5. If it ... summer we ... for a run in the country (be, go).
6. If he ... himself my answer ... the same (come, be).
7. If our talk ... my brother who is working in the next room, I
... you so myself (disturb, tell).
8. If you ... in my place, tell me, what ... you ... (be, do)?
9. If my friend ... to me that way I ... offended (speak, feel).
10. She ... our excursion even if you ... her; she is ill (not join,
invite).
11. If he ... ordinary the girl ... him (be, not love).
12. If it ... oftener it ... good for the garden (rain, be).
Exercise 12. Read the poem. Mind the use of the Subjunctive
Mood in it.
If I were a king
I often wish I were a king.
And then I could do anything.
If only I were king of Spain,
I’d take my hat off in the rain.
If only I were king of France,
I wouldn’t brush my hair for a month.
I think if I were king of Greece,
I’d push things off the mantelpiece.
If I were King of anything,
I’d tell the soldiers “I’m the King!”
Exercise 13. Answer the following questions.
1. What would you do if you were a student of Russian? a
teacher? a writer? a doctor?
32
2. What would you do if it drizzled? if it looked like raining?
if the weather were fine and frosty? if it were warm and
sunny?
3. What would you be doing if you were at an English lesson?
at a lecture? in the language laboratory? in the library? in
the kitchen? in the bathroom? in the dining-room? in the
bedroom? in the street? in the cinema?
4. Who would you consult if you fell ill?
5. Who would you like to be nursed by if you were ill?
6. Who would you complain to if you had a toothache?
7. Where would you be treated if you had a catching disease?
Exercise 14. Complete the following sentences.
1. If you were always near ... .
2. If I ever told you a lie ... .
3. If they really knew each other ... .
4. If they were allowed their own way ... .
5. If you left me alone in the house ... .
6. If the weather weren't so nasty now ... .
7. If he did his job in time ... .
8. If you stayed with us in summer ... .
9. If she liked apples ....
10. If we lived in Moscow .... .
11. If he worked harder ... .
Exercise 15. Supply the following sentences with suitable if clauses.
1. ... you would get into trouble.
2. ... the man would return to his native place.
3. I'd be at a loss what to do if ... .
4. He would visit us much oftener if ... .
5. She would oblige me greatly if ... .
6. I should feel much safer if ... .
7. Where would you live if...?
8. We should miss the news on the radio if ... .
9. He would work in the garden if ... .
33
10. The girl would buy this dress if ... .
11. They wouldn't recognize me if ... .
12. We should be tired if ... .
Exercise 16. Imagine something you want very much. Make
your own statements as follows.
If only I had money I'd travel a lot. If only I had your talent I'd
become a film-star.
Exercise 17. Translate into English, using the forms of the
Subjunctive Mood referring to the Present.
1. Вы знали бы грамматику лучше, если бы уделяли ей
больше внимания.
2. Если бы вы знали грамматику лучше, вы не делали бы
так много ошибок.
3. На вашем месте я бы выучил сначала слова.
4. Если бы вас действительно интересовали иностранные
языки, вы изучали бы их.
5. Если бы он не был занят, он помог бы нам. 6. Если бы
она не была так упряма, она пошла бы с нами.
7. Если бы не было так холодно сейчас, мы пошли бы
гулять в парк.
8. Было бы чудесно, если бы в субботу не было дождя.
9. Я научился бы водить машину, если бы она была у
меня.
10. Если бы он вернулся, вы не узнали бы его, ведь прошло
много времени.
11. Если бы он был сейчас в городе, он бы поздравил тебя
с днем рождения.
12. Кто бы еще мог это сделать, если бы тебя не было
здесь?
13. Они чаще ходили бы в музеи, если бы у них было
больше свободного времени.
14. К кому бы вы обратились за помощью, если бы попали
в беду?
34
Exercise 18. Read the following sentences. Translate them into
Russian.
1. She wouldn't have come if she hadn't been invited.
2. We should not have lost our way if the night had not been
so dark.
3. They would have sent us some information if there had
been anything to send.
4. You'd have found your fountain-pen if you had looked for
it better.
5. I should have recognized him at once if it hadn't been so
dark in the room.
6. The accident wouldn't have happened if the driver had
observed the traffic rules.
Exercise 19. Translate the sentences into English using the
forms of the Subjunctive Mood referring to the Past.
1. Если бы он был свободен вчера, он навестил бы меня.
2. Если бы вы были вчера на концерте, вы получили бы
большое удовольствие.
3. Если бы я знала об этой статье раньше, я перевела бы
ее.
4. Соревнования состоялись бы, если бы не полил
сильный дождь.
5. Он никогда бы не узнал меня, если бы я с ним не
заговорила.
6. Девочка не волновалась бы так сильно, если бы ей не
задавали так много вопросов.
7. Если бы вы помогли ей, она уже бы закончила работу.
8. Вы бы не устали так вчера, если бы больше отдыхали.
9. С ним ничего бы не случилось, если бы он не
торопился.
10. Если бы вы попросили меня об этом неделю назад, я
помогла бы вам сразу.
35
11. Если бы я был на вашем месте тогда, я поступил бы
иначе.
12. Если бы вы просмотрели старые газеты, вы нашли бы
интересный материал для своего доклада.
13. Если бы он был вчера в институте, мы встретили бы
его.
14. Если бы мы отправили телеграмму вчера, они бы ее
уже получили.
15. Если бы она зашла ко мне вчера, я бы помогла ей в этой
работе.
16. Если бы вы не пропустили свой автобус, вы бы не
опоздали в школу.
17. Я смог бы отремонтировать машину, если бы у меня
были необходимые инструменты.
Exercise 20. Complete these sentences to make appropriate
Subjunctive III or Mixed Subjunctive sentence, using the
correct form of the verbs in brackets.
Example: If you ...... (come) to the theatre yesterday, you
...... (enjoy) the play.
If you had come to the theatre yesterday, you
would have enjoyed the play.
1. If I ...... (visit) Athens last year, I ...... (phone) you.
2. If only I ....... (know) you already had tickets, I ........ (not
get) any for you.
3. If you ........ (start) coming to the course earlier, you ......
(could pass) the exam.
4. If I ....... (not be) so shy at the party last Saturday, I .........
(might make) more friends.
5. If you ....... (not spend) so much money, I ....... (not be)
angry now.
6. I ........ (could become) an accountant if I ...... (be) good at
maths.
7. She ........ (get) promotion last year if she .......... (not argue)
with the boss.
36
8. He ......... (not get) the job, if he ......... (not wear) a tie.
9. If I ......... (meet) you before, my life ........... (be) different.
10. If he ........ (not see) the other car, there .......... (be) a serious
accident.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD IN COMPLEX
SENTENCES
Exercise 1. Analyse the form of the verb in j the following
sentences. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. It's necessary that no one should breathe a word about it to
her.
2. It's so strange that your colleagues should have disagreed
with you.
3. It was recommended that all papers be filed and locked.
4. It's highly improbable that she should be thinking of you
now.
5. It is absolutely obligatory that all children here should wear
uniform.
6. Isn't it doubtful that the journalists should have been given
such an evasive answer?
7. It's better that your child shouldn't be vaccinated just now:
wait a little.
8. Isn't it clear that every opinion should be taken into
consideration?
9. Is it possible that the money should have been stolen? I
doubt it.
10. How wonderful that he should have joined us!
11. It is likely that everything may change yet.
12. It's strange that he should have been rehearsing that bit so
long: he doesn't know it at all.
13. I'm horrified that he should have been found guilty.
Exercise 2. Paraphrase the following sentences according to
the pattern.
37
Pattern:
a)
It's necessary for you to put off that call.
It's necessary that you should put off that call.
b)
It was recommended to forget the whole matter.
It was recommended that the whole matter should be
forgotten.
1. It was only right for them to have agreed.
2. It's very unusual for them to have admitted a stranger into
their company.
3. It's strange for the case to have been solved so fast.
4. It is recommended to inform your tutor about your
progress.
5. It's better for you not to answer back!
6. It was highly unnatural for him to be late.
7. It was thought unusual but not too strange for a person of
his status not to have gone to that conference.
8. It is requested to report all breaks in the procedure at once.
9. It's unbelievable for ten-year-olds to have put up such a
good show!
10. It was considered obligatory then for the girls to learn to
dance.
11. It was thought unbelievable for the junior staff members to
complain.
12. It's doubtful they produced such good result
13. Isn't it amazing that he got so near to the truth without any
assistance?
Exercise 3. Use the infinitives in brackets in the correct form.
1. It's necessary that we (to help) him.
2. It's strange that they (to help) him – usually he doesn't
accept support from anyone.
3. It's highly unlikely that he (to give) help – no one would
have wanted to support him.
4. Isn't it strange that they (to expect) an answer all those
months? Why didn't they drop the whole thing?
38
5. Is it possible that the Board (to give) serious thought to that
idea?
6. It's improbable that he (to bite) by his own dog.
7. It was recommended that the out-dated system (to replace)
with something more modern.
8. It was only right that this company's products (to boycott).
9. How wonderful that someone (to think) of everything
beforehand!
10. How unfortunate that you (to let) that topic dominate your
talk! You could have avoided that, you know.
11. I'm positively shocked that you (to fail) an easy test!
12. It's unlikely that your problem (to bring) to their attention
already.
Exercise 4. Complete the following sentences.
1. It's incredible ...
2. I'm greatly displeased ...
3. Isn't it curious ...?
4. It's typical ...
5. It's odd ..., isn't it?
6. It's funny ...
7. In the past it was believed important ...
8. Isn't it surprising ...?
9. It was obligatory ...
10. Isn't it splendid ...
11. It's amusing ...
Exercise 5. Translate the following sentences from Russian
into English.
1. Вам необходимо уехать как можно скорее.
2. Желательно, чтобы вы приняли участие в выставке.
3. Не может быть, чтобы вы собрались так быстро.
4. Cтранно, что никто до сих пор не додумался до такого
простого решения.
5. Не может быть, чтобы вы не встречались раньше – он вёл
себя так, как будто хорошо вас знает.
39
6. Совершенно необходимо, чтобы дети знали правила
дорожного движения.
7. Невероятно, что он уже на ногах после сложной
операции.
8. То, как Джейн вела себя при встрече с вами
совершенно необычно. На неё это непохоже.
9. Возможно, мы еще встретимся.
10. Рекомендуется прочитать текст целиком, прежде чем
браться за перевод.
11. Не может быть, чтобы вам не дали возможности
доказать, что вы здесь ни при чем.
12. Как странно, что Бет не сообщила, где находится.
Exercise 6. Paraphrase the following sentences according to
the pattern.
Pattern:
a)
I'd like your work to be flawless.
I wish your work were flawless.
b)
I am sorry (It's a pity) you didn't see the fireworks.
I wish you had seen the fireworks
c)
I'd like you to stop teasing your sister!
I wish you would stop teasing your sister!
1.
I'm sorry you can't go with us. 2. I'd like this horrible
day to be over.
3.
I'm sorry you aren't enjoying the film.
4.
I'd like him to stop smoking. (But I have no real hope
he will).
5.
It's a pity we can't be as business-like about it as you
are.
6.
I'm sorry you couldn't come to the yesterday's party.
7.
It's a pity I haven't got a car.
8.
It's a pity Joan was asked to leave.
9.
I'm sorry you didn't pass the exam.
10.
It's a pity you haven't been revising enough.
11.
It's a pity he doesn't have a job like yours.
40
12.
I'm sorry I can't go to the disco tonight. I've got too
much work to do.
13.
I'd like them to make it up. (But I have no real hope
they will).
14.
I'm sorry you had to wait.
15.
It's a pity you have been waiting so long.
16.
I'm sorry you didn't find that key.
17.
It's a pity you missed the exhibition.
18.
I'd like him to realize the truth. (But I have no real hope
he will).
19.
It's a pity .she is no longer in touch with modern life.
20.
I'd like him to know nothing about this case.
21.
It's a pity he is being so touchy today.
22.
It's a pity you haven't bought that cottage.
23.
It's a pity you can't adjust to the climate.
24.
It's a pity she has to leave so soon.
25.
He is sorry to have taken this to heart.
Exercise 7. Use the infinitives in brackets in the correct form.
1. «Are you happy with your job?» «I wish I (to be).»
2. I wish I (to know) him before.
3. I wish he never (to invite) here!
4. I'm afraid she is over-conscientious. I wish she (to pay) less
attention to her work.
5. Timmy wishes he (can go) to the summer camp with the
rest of the children.
6. I wish you (not to look) so unbearably surprised. You have
known everything all along, haven't you?
7. «Do you regret you've said it?» «I don't regret anything, no.
I only wish I (to express) myself more clearly.»
8. «I'm sure he now wishes he (not to show) me that picture.»
«A little too late, isn't it?»
9. «I'm not upset, I tell you. I only wish everybody (to stop)
being so sympathetic.»
41
10. Jillian wished she (can allow) to see the patient, though no
one had been.
11. I wish you (not to show) so much curiosity. It wasn't
proper.
12. I wish Bill (not to disappear) so quickly. I wanted to ask
him something.
13. She almost wished he (to be) home again, wished they (not
to part)...
14. «Is there any other way?» «I wish there (to be).»
15. I wish you (to reckon) with the possibility of an inquest
before you stole that money.
16. It was a bad ten days. Jeremy nearly wished he (not to
refuse) Tony's offer and now (to stay) at his place: he
wouldn't be so lonely there.
17. You couldn't escape that topic for long. It was always there
that season, hanging in the air, drifting under doors,
perched on shoulders like an albatross... Carol wished she
(not to hear) the word every time she entered someone's
house. She wished the story (to forget). She wished the
journalists, the public in general and her neighbours in
particular (can tell) that she and her husband were in
Europe. She wished they (to be) in Europe.
Exercise 8. Analyze the form of the verb in the following
sentences. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. I find it highly improbable that we should receive no
answer at all: we will, but not the answer you hope for.
2. They feel it advisable that the general public be kept in the
dark about the matter.
3. She found it unbelievable that Johnny shouldn't have been
admitted to the club.
4. I consider it probable that they should have been given a
negative answer.
42
5. Don't you find it strange that he should be checking all the
papers himself? What's wrong?
6. Didn't you think it best that everything be settled quietly?
7. Marie considered it doubtful that her company should give
her a pay rise.
8. I think it absolutely necessary that you should report
directly to me and double check every point before you do
that.
9. Don't you find it impossible that he should have been
worrying about it all the time?
10. We consider it totally unnecessary that he be bothered
again. Why can't you leave well alone?
Exercise 9. Paraphrase the following sentences according to
the pattern.
Pattern:
I consider it impossible for him to have gone
there alone.
I consider it impossible that he should have
gone there alone.
1. They consider it of vital importance to receive correct data.
2. I felt it impossible for the book to have been published so
soon.
3. She found it important to chair the meeting herself.
4. Terry finds it best to exclude Robert from sources of
information.
5. Margaret thought it dangerous to switch elf the power
herself.
6. He thought it unnecessary to maintain the Department at its
present size,
7. Don't you find it ridiculous that they have been living here
for more than a year and still don't know anything or
anyone?
8. I find it shocking to be treated like that!
43
9. Do you believe it true for her to have been taken ill so
suddenly?
10. I find it advisable for her not to conduct that interview
herself.
11. Didn't they suppose it strange for the troops to have been
withdrawn so suddenly?
12. Why do you find it obligatory for us to participate in this
farce?
13. Don't you think it wonderful for us to have been invited
there? We'll see all the celebrities!
14. I believe it dangerous for him to be going around asking
questions.
Exercise 10. Use the infinitives in brackets in the correct form.
1. We found it absolutely necessary that everyone (to
participate) in the discussion.
2. I think it doubtful that his yesterday's lecture (to attend) by
so many students: he is not what I would call a good
teacher.
3. Didn't you think it strange that he (to give) time off for
good behaviour?
4. Do you think it doubtful that they (to threaten) by a
blackmailer and had to pay him?
5. I feel it advisable that you (to practice) more.
6. I found it shocking that Jean (to bar) from the graduation
ceremony, though I can't approve of what she had done.
7. We consider it incredible that he (to write) yet another
page-turner: everyone thought he had exhausted that theme.
8. I sat nailed to my seat, finding it unbelievable that no one
(to notice) what was going on before their eyes.
9. Everyone found it surprising that she (to make) such efforts
to educate herself.
10. Do you think it desirable that your children (to make) to
wear uniform?
44
11. Don't you find it surprising that a nine-year-old (to solve) a
Rubik's Cube so quickly?
12. I had been having a grinding headache for an hour. Now it
was slowly draining away and I thought it strange that I (to
fail) to think of Percodan before.
Exercise 11. Complete the following sentences.
1. Do you find it essential ...?
2. I find it curious ...
3. Do people nowadays find it necessary …?
4. Students nowadays (don't) consider it obligatory ...
5. Everyone found it amusing ...
6. Why do you feel it funny ...?
7. Didn't the Board find it important ...?
8. I usually think it surprising ...
9. I think it best ...
10. The public think it better ...
11. I consider it highly doubtful ...
Exercise 12. Translate the following sentences from Russian
into English.
1. Почему вы считаете важным, чтобы в книге была
упомянута его фамилия?
2. Не кажется ли вам странным, что его уже несколько
дней никто не видел?
3. То, что Тим с ним теперь не разговаривает, кажется
мне вполне естественным, а вам?
4. Я нахожу маловероятным, чтобы его мнение не было
принято во внимание.
5. Почему то, что с ним там плохо обращались, кажется
вам невозможным?
6. Доктор полагает, что мне необходимо бросить курить.
7. Мне не кажется, что такое поведение нормально.
8. Он полагает, что для нас лучше всего было бы забыть
об этом деле.
45
9. Вам не кажется странным, что за все это время Фил ни
разу не дал о себе знать?
10. Мне представляется невероятным, чтобы ему
разрешили поехать туда одному.
Exercise 13. Analyse the form of the verb in the following
sentences. Translate the sentence into Russian.
1. He felt as if he were a student again.
2. She looked as though she had always known something like
that would happen.
3. It was as if he were looking at himself and heard his own
voice say «I don't know.»
4. It's not as if you owed him anything.
5. It's not as if they had done anything wrong!
6. It seems as if the house had been broken into.
7. It seemed as if he was being talked into something illegal.
8. The food tasted and smelt as if no one had bothered to cook
it.
9. «Don't touch it!» That sounded as if she really had a right
to give orders.
10. Joseph felt as though he had been betrayed.
11. My advice is that you should take someone with you.
12. My dearest wish is that my daughter should marry a young
man I could approve of.
13. Our suggestion was that we take a tour round the city
before going to the gallery.
14. His fear was lest he should be given away.
15. Tara’s apprehension is lest someone should discover her
secret.
16. The lawyer’s demand was that the trial be moved to another
country.
17. The motion was that the grand jury indict him.
18. My fear was lest Ethel should notice her purse was missing.
46
19. Our main condition was that the paper should be signed by
two witnesses.
20. The old man's wish was that we should not leave him alone.
Exercise 14. Use the correct form of the infinitives in brackets.
1. He felt as if Robert (to be about) to tip him, but thought
better of it.
2. The house looked as though it (not to use) for years.
3. It was as if they still (to deceive) themselves.
4. He looked as if he just (to wake up).
5. It's not as if he (to want) to hurt you or something. It was
just a joke, you know.
6. It seemed as if he (to be going) to answer back.
7. They all felt as if the boy (to conceal) something, but they
couldn't find out what.
8. The room smelt as if someone (to smoke) there.
9. Her manner is humiliating, it's as if she (to be) the boss
around here.
10. He always looks as if he (to be) a little dumb, but believe
me he's no fool.
11. It looks as if he still (may write) that book he so desperately
wants to publish. It seemed as if no one (to discover) their
plot yet.
12. It looked as if no one (can get) past him. But there was
someone in the house –someone had got past him.
Exercise 15. Complete the following sentences.
1. The house was empty. It was as if ...
2. Don't pout. It's not as if ...
3. Stay back! It's not as if ...
4. I feel as if ...
5. The cake tastes as if ...
6. Your words sound as though ...
7. She was desperate. She felt as though ...
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8. They were exhilarated. They felt as if ...
9. The patient request was …
10. Their secret plan was …
11. He was on the verge of tears. He sounded as if ...
12. His blinding headache was draining away now. He felt as if
…
Exercise 16. Translate the following sentences from Russian
into English. Define the type of clause.
1. Она побледнела, как будто внезапно плохо себя
почувствовала.
2. Ситуация выглядела так, будто всё было подстроено
заранее.
3. Он говорил так серьёзно, будто это вопрос жизни и
смерти.
4. Казалось, им больше ничего не угрожает.
5. У меня было такое чувство, будто за мной кто-то
наблюдает.
6. У вас такой вид, словно вы не можете решить, что вам
делать.
7. Майк выглядит таким счастливым, как будто ему
только что сообщили какую-то отличную новость.
8. Она быстро подняла письмо, как будто не хотела,
чтобы его кто-нибудь заметил.
9. Мне кажется, что он не сам всё это придумал. У него
такой вид, будто он повторил чьи-то слова.
10. Джейн слушала меня с улыбкой, как будто не
понимала, насколько всё это серьезно.
11. Он ведёт себя так неосторожно, как будто ему всё
равно, что с ним случится.
12. Почему ты так себя ведешь? Ведь ты уже не ребёнок!
14. Смотрите, Ник разговаривает с ней, как ни в чём не
бывало (как будто ничего не случилось).
15. Кажется, они очень хорошо знают друг друга.
48
16. Кажется, когда-то они очень хорошо друг друга.
17. С каждым днем ему всё больше казалось, он никогда не
уезжал из этого дома, что он жил здесь всегда.
18. Мой вам совет – начните готовиться к замену заранее.
19. Мы все боялись, как бы крыша дома не рухнула.
20. Требуется, чтобы это правило соблюдали все.
21. Он опасался, что над его предложением будут
смеяться.
22. Единственное приемлемое предложение заключалось в
том, чтобы оставить всё как есть.
Exercise 17. Analyse the form of the verb in the following
sentences. Translate the sentence into Russian.
1. No matter how unpleasant the job might you have no other
choice but take it.
2. Unpleasant as the job might be, you have other choice but
take it.
3. No matter what he may have been once, he has no right to
give me advice.
4. Though he might have been hurt, he pretended otherwise.
5. Although he might have been planning son mischief, he is
quite harmless now.
6. Whichever of the books you may choose, they are both too
complicated for you.
7. Come what may, I'll stick to my choice.
8. Whoever may come and ask for me, tell them I'm out.
9. Whenever he might be asked for money, he always says
he's broke.
10. I'll go and see him whatever you might say.
11. Even if he were living here, he wouldn't bother to join us.
12. I wouldn't marry him even if he offered me a million
pounds.
49
13. Even though we had been offered better terms, we would
never have agreed.
14. He would've accepted our plan even if he'd had some
misgivings, but he hadn't any.
15. She wouldn't have bought that hat even if the price suited
her.
Exercise 18. Use the infinitives in brackets in the correct form.
1. Whatever his faults may (to be), he is a first-class man at
his job.
2. Whatever his faults may (to be), he's done a lot to get rid of
them.
3. «Comfortable though my life may (to be) here,» he wrote,
«I must now leave.»
4. Whatever they may (to think) of it before, they have
obviously changed their mind.
5. Suspicious as his story may (to be), that was the only
account we had at the moment. Now we have some more,
and all of it confirms what he said.
6. No matter how tired Julian might (to seem), at the mention
of money his eyes sparkled.
7. Whichever of you two may (to do) it, he'd better tell me
about it.
8. Though she may (to change) after all these years, I easily
recognized her.
9. Tired though he might (to feel), he proceeded the
investigation.
10. Whoever might (to be) capable of doing such a thing,
should also be able to answer for it.
11. Though he may (to be) pleased with his daughter’s
progress, he never showed it.
12. However sincere his apology may (to be), it will never be
accepted.
50
13. However dangerous this road may (to be), I’m still willing
to try it.
14. I never (to say) anything against him he (to betray) me
again.
15. They (not to win) that match even if they (to play) twice as
well as they did.
16. Even though everyone (may think) he was wrong, he (not
to agree).
17. She (cannot join) our group even if she (to invite). She was
busy that day.
18. You (may think) with your head at least once even if it (to
hurt).
19. It is so dark we (cannot see) anything even if we (to guess)
to take a torch with us.
20. Even if I (not to know) him so well, you (not to persuade)
me to blame him.
21. Mildred (not to achieve) anything even if she (to be) less
lazy.
Exercise 19. Make up sentences using the following clauses.
1) although the weather might be bad; 2. matter how awful the
situation might be;
3) though he might have been deceived once;
4) however hard he might try;
5) whatever your problems might be;
6) whatever you may think;
7) although there might have been some misunderstanding;
8) whoever might object;
9) wherever you may go;
10) difficult though it may seem;
11) although no one might come;
12) no matter what might have been said about it before.
51
Exercise 20. Complete the following sentences using the
adverbial clauses of concession.
1. ... he still never grumbles.
2. ... I'll be glad to see you.
3. ... they'll never get there.
4. ... I'll do everything to help you.
5. ... her memory never failed her.
6. ... he'll never make it.
7. ... the company is still eager to give him promotion.
8. ... they'll pretend nothing has happened.
9. ... no one objected.
10. ... we'll come there on time.
Exercise 21. Translate the following sentences from Russian
into English.
1. He верьте ему, что бы он ни говорил.
2. Как бы тщательно вы всё ни планировали,
неожиданности всегда возможны.
3. Каким бы честным он ни был раньше, сейчас он очень
изменился.
4. Вам придется выполнять мои распоряжения, что бы вы
об этом ни думали.
5. Каким бы доверчивым он ни был, этому он не поверит.
6. Когда бы вы к нему ни пришли, он всегда занят.
7. Я куплю этот дом, сколько бы он ни стоил.
8. Позвоните мне, как только приедете домой, как бы
поздно это ни было.
9. Что бы ни случилось, я не покину вас.
10. Что бы с ним ни случилось, в газетах пока нет об этом
никакой информации.
11. Как бы вы ни торопились, правила дорожного
движения нужно соблюдать.
12. Кто бы ни пришел к ним в дом, он всегда встречал
радушный прием.
52
13. Даже если бы вы помогли ему, он бы всё равно не
справился с заданием.
14. Даже если бы в расследовании были задействованы
большие силы, это не принесло бы результата.
15. Я не поверил бы тому, что вы о нём говорите, даже
если бы мы с ним не были знакомы с детства.
16. Я был бы вам благодарен, даже если бы вы сделали для
меня наполовину меньше.
17. Она не бросит свою работу, даже если бы ей
предложили что-нибудь более увлекательное.
18. Он не стал бы с вами спорить, даже если бы думал, что
может переубедить вас.
Exercise 22. Paraphrase the following sentences using
adverbial clauses of comparison.
1. Dinny stopped as if having just realized what she was
saying.
2. «What's the matter?» he asked as if not knowing the reason.
3. He left so quickly one might think someone was pursuing
him.
4. Ron was asking one question after another as if in a hurry
to get all the information he could.
5. She passed by as if not recognizing him.
6. He paused as if afraid to go on.
7. Don't stop in the middle of the phrase as if not knowing
your lesson.
8. She clasped her hands as though having received a death
blow.
9. On seeing her note he stood as if struck.
10. She was leaning on the cushions as if not having yet
recovered.
11. Tina smiled as if happy with the news.
12. «Why are you staring at me? Have I third eye?»
13. Johnny paused as if searching for words.
53
14. When he entered, everyone in the room looked up as if
having seen a ghost.
15. She was sure of the outcome as if having received some
inside information.
Exercise 23. Complete the following sentences using adverbial
clauses of comparison.
1. Jane hid the book she was reading as if …
2. He lay motionlessly as though ...
3. He stood speechless as if ...
4. He was too sympathetic as though ...
5. She sobbed wildly as if ...
6. He curbed his urge to laugh as if ...
7. He stared at his watch as if ...
8. The police launched investigation as if ...
9. She pouted as if ...
10. He gave the problem little consideration if...
Exercise 24. Translate the following sentences from Russian
into English.
1. На все мои вопросы он отвечал таким тоном, словно
эта беседа его совершенно не интересовала.
2. Он чувствовал себя неловко, как будто все
присутствующие смотрели на него.
3. Стены в комнате были покрыты тёмными пятнами, как
будто её давно не ремонтировали.
4. Она говорила таким уверенным тоном, словно знала
ответы на все вопросы.
5. Джулия оглядывалась на ходу, как будто за ней кто-то
гнался.
6. Он работал всё быстрее, как будто что-то подсказывало
ему, что времени осталось совсем немного.
7. Не смейте обращаться с ней как с ребёнком.
54
8. Он не хотел уходить, как будто боялся, что без него мы
упустим что-нибудь важное.
9. Лилиан говорила с ними так, словно они уже обо всем
знали, словно слухи уже могли дойти до них.
10. Она сообщила нам о своём отъезде таким тоном,
словно мы её чем-нибудь обидели.
11. Он так радовался, словно именно о таком подарке
мечтал всю жизнь.
Exercise 25. Paraphrase the following sentences according to
the pattern.
Pattern:
1. I left a note on the table to remind you about the call. (so
that)
2. I left a note on the table so that it should remind you about
the call.
3. I took twenty driving lessons to pass my driving test first
time. (so that)
4. We arrived at the cinema early so as not miss the beginning
of the film. (so that)
5. We stood up in order to get a better view what was going
on. (that)
6. Mr. Jones bought a second car for his wife to learn to drive.
(so that)
7. I'm going to sign the agreement immediately. You might
change your mind. (in case)
8. Take this key with you. You might not be able to get into
the house. (in case)
9. I'm going to take my passport with me. I might need it. (in
case)
10. Go by train. There might be a lot of traffic the road. (in
case)
11. I spoke slowly and clearly because I want the audience to
understand. (so that)
55
12. Put on your coat. It might get pretty cold] the evening. (in
case)
13. He saved money for his family to go to Europe in summer.
(so that)
14. She went downstairs quietly so as not to draw attention. (in
order that /lest)
15. They tried to placate the mob as they didn't want the
trouble to break out again. (so that/ lest)
16. He stepped back for her to see everything better. (that)
Exercise 26. Complete the following sentences using adverbial
clauses of purpose.
1. We took a taxi ...
2. They telephoned the manager ...
3. He concentrated on his work ...
4. She practices every day ...
5. You must find a good dentist ...
6. They never punish their children ...
7. I put a notice there ...
8. They slowed down the investigation ...
9. He took great risks ...
10. Don't hold back your views ...
11. He sent his son to a prep-school ...
12. Change your approach ...
Exercise 27. Translate the following sentences from Russian
into English.
1. Учитель объяснил правило ещё раз, чтобы всё было
ясно.
2. Смотрите под ноги, чтобы не упасть.
3. Я сообщаю вам об этих изменениях для того, чтобы вы
ещё раз обдумали моё предложение.
4. Закройте дверь, чтобы не было сквозняка.
56
5. Она отвернулась, чтобы никто не заметил, что она
плакала.
6. Ей пришлось вмешаться в их спор, чтобы они не
поругались окончательно.
7. Зажгите настольную лампу, чтобы вам было удобнее
работать.
8. Услышав, что Питер возвращается, Джил положила
конверт на место и закрыла ящик стола (a drawer),
чтобы он не заметил, что она что-то искала.
9. Ему пришлось повторить стихотворение ещё Раз,
чтобы не забыть его.
10. Полицейские обошли всех соседей, чтобы узнать, не
слышали ли они чего-нибудь.
11. Тим просил тщательно завернуть вазу, чтобы она не
разбилась.
12. Этот знак поставлен здесь для того, чтобы все обратили
внимание на опасность.
13. Я произнесу его фамилию по буквам, чтобы вы ее
правильно записали.
14. Они спорили шепотом, чтобы дети не узнали об их
размолвке.
15. Уберите отсюда сумку, чтобы кто-нибудь не
споткнулся.
Exercise 28. Read the text. Explain the usage of the
Subjunctive Mood.
The Three Wishes
A certain farmer’s wife spent most of her time wishing for
things which she did not possess. She wished she were
beautiful; she wished she were wealthy; she wished she had a
handsome husband. Therefore, one day, some fairies decided to
grant her three wishes as an experiment.
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The farmer and his wife talked a long time over what
she should wish for. But the farmer’s wife suddenly became a
little hungry and, from force of habit, she wished she had some
sausages to eat. Immediately her market basket was full of
sausages. Then a heated argument began because the husband
said his wife had wasted one of their valuable wishes on such a
cheap thing as sausages. The argument grew hotter, and, finally
in anger the wife said that she wished the sausages were
hanging on her husband’s nose. Immediately the string of
sausages flew to his nose and stayed there. Nor could they be
removed.
Now, there was only one thing the poor woman could
do. She really loved her husband and so she had to spend her
third wish in removing the sausages from his nose. Thus,
except for the few sausages, she gained nothing from her three
wishes.
REVISION
Exercise 1. Paraphrase the following sentences using the
subjunctive mood. Analyze the sentences.
1. I've brought you here for you to see everything with your
own eyes.
2. He thought it time to drop the matter completely.
3. If asked, he would know what to answer.
4. But for that mistake your work could be perfect.
5. It's absolutely impossible for us to act in a different way.
6. The inspector demanded to be shown the factory grounds.
7. But for your help the experiment would have gone sour.
8. Don't you find it strange for him to be late? It's high time
for him to join us.
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9. I'm sorry to bother you, but the chief insisted on your
seeing him before you leave.
10. Even if tired, he found time to answer every question.
11. She interfered with their argument as if having a right to do
so.
12. I find it better for them to reconsider while there is still
time for it.
13. We would have sailed out even in strong wind.
14. Everyone was appalled by the idea of inviting Vivian too.
15. My only wish is to see you happy.
16. «Tell me how it happened.» No sooner had he started than I
regretted I had asked.
Exercise 2. Paraphrase the following sentences using the
subjunctive mood. Analyze the sentences.
1. Martin looked around him as if not knowing where he was.
2. Martin looked amused as if having just heard a joke.
3. Have you arranged for our things to be taken to the hotel?
4. His demand to be given access to the files was refused.
5. He seemed to have done nothing wrong. It was a pity I
couldn't believe him.
6. I've just phoned home for my parents to know where I am.
7. Why do you expect me to do it? I don't think I promised
anything. (It's not as if...)
8. I'm sorry to have come here at all. It's a pity you invited
me.
9. I did everything for her not to worry. I was very anxious for
her not to be disturbed by the news.
10. Why don't they stop this constant noise?
11. I regret having brought you here. But I did it for you to be
able to judge for yourself.
12. Don’t you think it strange for Karen to have forgotten to
call?
13. Even if threatened, he wouldn’t have changed his mind.
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14. The fear that he wouldn’t be recognized never left him.
15. Mother suggested our going to the hospital at once.
Everyone agreed.
Exercise 3. Analyze the form of the verb in the following
sentences. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. No one objected to his demand that he should be paid his
regular fee.
2. No one objected to his demand that he be paid regularly.
3. His fear that anyone should see him was deep.
4. The new instruction that progress reports should be
submitted once a week surprised everyone, but was
nevertheless followed.
5. She expressed our common wish that the subject be given
serious attention.
6. I could not hide my disbelief that my colleagues should
have done so well without me white had been ill.
7. Strong apprehension lest someone should reveal her secret
was written all over her face.
8. Why didn't you stop him when he voiced that silly proposal
that we should not attend the session?
9. Everyone thought his fear lest his real name be found out
groundless.
10. His request that we should both join the investigation
intrigued us.
11. I think Peter's suggestion that we should go to the bar and
try to recover from the jet lag is reasonable.
12. I agree that his idea that we go to Alaska in summer was a
little bit sudden.
13. It was my suggestion that you should join us.
Exercise 4. Complete the following sentences.
1. The instruction ... was followed.
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2. The motion ... was supported by the majority.
3. Your doubt ... is groundless.
4. I support your demand ...
5. I have nothing against your wish ...
6. Their fear ... was getting on my nerves.
7. I consider the request ... important.
8. I heartily disagree with the idea ...
9. His surprise ... was obvious.
10. The proposal ... intrigued me.
11. I was quite sceptical of their proposition ...
12. He voiced his curious idea ...
13. As I had no way out, I was forced to consider the idea ...
again.
14. Their fear ... was totally incomprehensible.
15. It was/wasn't my idea ...
Exercise 5. Translate the following sentences from Russian
into English.
1. Меня расстроило ваше распоряжение о том, чтобы наш
отдел был закрыт.
2. Марджори
высказала
общее
пожелание
всех
сотрудников, чтобы часть столовой была отведена для
некурящих.
3. Предложение, заключавшееся в том, чтобы сделать
перерыв, устраивало всех.
4. Мистер Грин подумал, что просьба Майка о
повышении зарплаты несвоевременна.
5. Большинство
проголосовало
за
предложение,
заключавшееся в том, чтобы отложить обсуждение
данного вопроса на какое-то время.
6. Меня удивила его просьба о том, чтобы ему позволили
взглянуть на портрет до того, как он был закончен.
7. Опасения, как бы его обман не раскрылся, мешали ему
сосредоточиться.
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8. Арчи не поверил, что друзья могли так подвести его.
9. Я ни на чем не настаивал. Я только высказал
пожелание, чтобы в следующий раз этот вопрос без
меня не обсуждали.
10. Все одобрили план, заключавшиеся в том, чтобы
вначале выслушать экспертов, а потом принимать
решение.
11. Мне кажется, что постоянный страх, как бы его не
уволили, не имеет никаких оснований.
12. Кто придумал разбить лагерь именно здесь?
Exercise 6. Analyze the form of the verb in the following
sentences. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. It's time the child were in bed.
2. It's high time someone stepped in and stopped this
meaningless quarrel.
3. Isn't it time you took some action against them?
4. «It's time someone gave me a hand!» The remark went
unnoticed.
5. It's about time he was given another chance.
6. Isn't it time that you should stop waiting for an opportunity
to be offered you on a silver platter?
7. Don't you think it's time you were working on your project?
8. Can't the child behave? It's high time someone told him that
won't do.
9. It's time you should be doing something with your life. It's
time you were looking for a place to settle in.
10. Isn't it high time she gave up on that idea?
11. Michael was about five when his father thought it was time
he should study music.
12. It's time he were having breakfast, isn't it?
Exercise 7. Use the infinitives in brackets in the correct form.
1. It's high time you (to do) something about that dripping tap!
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2. It's time the problem (to deal with).
3. Don't you find it's time that someone (to tell) our supervisor
that the experiment is going wrong?
4. Isn't it time he (to be) home?
5. It's about time we (to tell) about your plans.
6. Are you still reading? It's time you (to work) again.
7. Late again? It's time you (to look) for another job! 8. It's
time someone else (to ask) to attend this boring conference
– just for a change.
9. It's high time you (to stop) daydreaming.
10. It's time he (to consult) his colleagues, isn't it?
11. It's time some changes (to made) in the Department. They
are long overdue.
12. It's time it (to become) clear to you how total the failure is.
13. It's high time something (to do) about this case – and
quickly.
14. It's time that someone else (to chair) the meeting.
15. It's high time you (to consider) your position instead of
being so sure of yourself.
16. The same story? It's time you (to think) of something more
credible.
17. Isn't it high time you (to be) on first-name terms with
Doris?
Exercise 8. Paraphrase the following sentences using
attributive clauses.
1. They've been parted for a long time. It's time for him to
forget about her.
2. It's time for us to be given a definite answer.
3. Angela has known me for ages. It's time for her to get used
to my ways.
4. It's time for you to know the meaning of the proverb «It
never rains but it pours».
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5. If you want anything done properly, you should start doing
it yourself.
6. The scheme is outdated. It's time for some improvement.
7. I've just had bad luck. It's about time for something good to
happen.
8. Isn't it necessary to put an end to her nagging?
9. Why don't you ever speak up?
10. You've been learning English for some time. Why can't you
spell this word yet?
11. It's time to be going home, I think.
12. It's high time for my fortune to take the turn for the better.
13. Isn't it time for all of us to put some pressure on him?
Otherwise he might never listen to our demands.
14. Why don't you tell them anything about your decision?
15. Why don't they tell you anything about their decision?
16. They had put the company together on a wing and a prayer.
But now it was time for everyone to take them into account.
17. It's no use reasoning with him. Why don't you stop?
Exercise 9. Translate the following sentences from Russian
into English.
1. Уже двенадцать. Пока выключать телевизор и ложиться
спать.
2. Тим звонил нам уже час назад. Ему давно пора прийти.
3. Вам не пора уходить?
4. Вы уже давно работаете здесь. Пора научиться
соблюдать наши правила.
5. Вам не кажется, что детям давно пора быть дома.
6. Вы поссорились из-за пустяка. Пора бы и помириться.
7. Пора бы вам перестать жаловаться и начать
действовать.
8. Скоро экзамены. Вам не пора начать заниматься?
9. Мне кажется, тебе пора бросить курить. Пора, по
крайней мере, попытаться.
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10. Нас слишком долго держат в неведение. Пора бы уже
хоть что-нибудь нам объяснить.
11.
Не пора ли выяснить, что произошло на самом
деле?
12. Не пора ли уделить внимание и этой проблеме?
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MODAL VERBS
Modal verbs are used to express the speaker’s attitude
towards the action in the sentence. They represent an action as
necessary or unnecessary, possible or impossible, certain or
doubtful and the like
There are following modal verbs in English: can, may,
must, ought, shall, should, will, need and dare. Besides, to
have and to be in some of their uses are also classed among
modal verbs.
Modal verbs are defective verbs since they lack many
forms characteristic of regular verbs: they have no -s in the
third person singular in the present tense and no verbals, so
they have no analytical forms; some of them lack the form of
the past tense.
Modal verbs have the following peculiarities:
1) they are followed by the infinitive without the particle
to (with the exception of ought, to have and to be);
2) their interrogative and negative forms are built up
without the auxiliary do.
Most of the modal verbs have more than one meaning.
Each of their meanings is characterized by a specific usage.
Some of the meanings may be found in all kinds of sentences;
others occur only in affirmative or interrogative or negative
sentences. Different meanings may be associated with different
forms of the infinitive – simple and perfect (both in the active
and passive forms), continuous and perfect continuous.
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CAN
The modal verb can expresses:
1.Mental,
physical,
circumstantial ability
2. Permission
можете + инф.
3. Request
4. Prohibition
нельзя + инф.
5.Strong
doubt,
incredulity
(occurs with the negative
form of the modal verb)
6. Surprise (in questions)
Can you lift this box?
He can solve the most difficult
problems.
They can get there by bus.
You can go now. You can play
with the boys here.
Can you do me a favour?
Could you get me a glass of
water?
You can't cross the street here.
He can’t have seen it.
Can it be so late as all that?
Неужели уже так поздно?
7. Reproach (only with the You could at least have met me
form could)
at the station, couldn’t you?
8. Purpose (only with the I wrote down the telephone
form could in clauses of number so I could remember it.
purpose)
The modal verb can has the following forms:
can – the present tense (e.g. He can speak English)
could – the past tense.
The form could is used in several cases:
a) in past-time contexts as a form of the Indicative Mood
e.g. He could speak English when he was a child
67
b) in present-time contexts to express unreality, or as a
milder and more polite form of can, or as a form implying
more uncertainty than can
e.g. He could speak English if necessary.
Could I help you?
Could it be true?
c) sometimes we use could to speak about possible future
actions. In this case it has a present or future meaning
e.g. What shall we do this evening? We could go to the
cinema.
d) could have (done) (the past form of could (do) is used
to say that we had the ability or opportunity to do something
but did not do it
e.g. We didn’t go out last night. We could have gone to
the cinema but we decided to stay at home.
The modal verb can expressing mental or physical ability,
permission, request or prohibition is followed by the nonperfect common aspect infinitive:
e.g. I can drive a car.
You can’t touch the exhibits in the museum.
In case can is employed the meaning of doubt, surprise,
reproach, purpose, it is followed by any form of the infinitive.
e.g. He can’t have seen it.
Could he have been telling her the truth?
Can / to be able to
This meaning of ability may also be expressed by to be
able. The phrase can be used in all tense-forms if necessary.
However, if the time reference is not clear from the context or
if it is necessary to stress that the action refers to the future,
shall/will be able is used.
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Could / was/were able to
If it is meant that someone managed to do something in
the particular situation, you have to use was/were able to do
smth (not could)
e.g. The fire spread throughout the building very
quickly but everyone was able to escape (= managed to
escape).
Set expressions with the modal verb can:
Cannot / can’t help doing smth. – Не могу не делать
что-то
When I saw him I couldn't help laughing. – Когда я
увидел его, я не мог не рассмеяться.
Cannot / can't but do smth. – Не могу не…
I cannot but suggest… – Я не могу не предложить…
We cannot but hope… – Нам остается только
надеяться…
One cannot but wonder – нельзя не задуматься
As can be – an intensifying expression
It’s as ugly as can be. – Это необычайно уродливо
(трудно себе представить что-либо более отвратительное).
MAY
We use may / might:
1. to ask or to give May I borrow your umbrella,
please?
permission
May I see your garden, please?
2. to talk about I'm not sure where to go for my
possible happenings holiday.
I may go to Italy. (= perhaps I will
in the Future
go )
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The weather forecast is not very
good.
It might rain this afternoon. (=
perhaps it will rain)
3.
to
express You may not go swimming. Не
prohibition (only with смей…
the negative forms of
the modal verb)
4. to express a You are becoming forgetful. You
reproach (used only in might have reminded me about it.
positive statements in
the form might)
5.
to
express This news is so strange that you may
not believe it.
supposition,
uncertainty
(in
affirmative
and
negative sentences)
The modal verb may has the following forms:
may – the Present tense (e.g. It may be true) and
might – the Past tense.
The form might is used in two ways:
a) in past-time contexts, mainly in reported speech
in accordance with the rules of the sequence of tenses
e.g.
He told me that it might be true
b) in present-time contexts as a milder and more
polite form of may, or as a form implying more
uncertainty than may
e.g. Might I come and see you? It might be true,
or to express unreality
e.g. He might have fallen ill if he hadn't taken the pills.
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We also use can/could to ask or refuse permission. Can is
the commonest and most informal. Could is more polite than
can:
e.g. Can I make myself a cup of coffee? (You're
visiting your friend).
Could I make a phone call, please? (You are in the
office).
The modal verb may in the meaning of permission,
possibility and prohibition is followed by the non-perfect
common infinitive:
e.g. I wonder if I may borrow your book?
May implying supposition, uncertainty or reproach is
followed by any form of the infinitive:
e.g. Why hasn’t he come? He may have been hurt.
Can / may
The use of can and may is parallel only in two meanings:
possibility due to circumstances and permission. In these
meanings, however, they are not always interchangeable for a
number various reasons.
1)
Thus in the meaning of possibility due to
circumstances the use of may is restricted only to affirmative
sentences, whereas can is found in all kinds of sentences.
MAY
CAN
He may find this book at the He can find this book at the
library.
library.
Can he find this book at the
library?
He cannot find this book at
the library.
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Their time reference is also different. May refers only to
the present or future; the form might is used in past-time
contexts in reported speech. Can (could) may refer to the
present, past or future.
MAY
CAN
He may find this book at the He can find this book at the
library.
library.
I said that he might find the He could find the book at the
book at the library.
library yesterday.
He can find the book at the
library tomorrow.
Both could and might combined with the Perfect
infinitive indicate that the action was not carried out in the past.
e.g.He might have found the book at the library.
He could have found the book at the library.
It follows from the above that the sphere of application of
can in this meaning is wider than that of may.
2) When may and can express permission the difference
between them is rather that of style than of meaning – may is
more formal than can which is characteristic of colloquial
English.
e.g. May (might) I speak to you for a moment,
professor?
Can (could) I have a cup of tea, Mother?
May in negative sentences expressing prohibition is
uncommon.
Here are some expressions with the modal verb
may/might:
I may/might as well + infinitive - is a very mild and
unemphatic way of expressing an intention.
e.g. I may as well take you with me.
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It can be used with other persons to suggest or
recommend an action.
e.g. You may as well give him the letter.
Might just as well means «it would be equally good to»
and is used to suggest alternative actions. Though the meaning
is basically the same as in the previous sentences, «just» makes
the sentence more emphatic.
e.g.
– I'll go on Monday by a slow train.
– You might just as well wait till Tuesday and
go by the fast one.
MUST
The modal verb must expresses:
1.obligation,
necessity (= have
to...)
2. a command, an
urgent request
3. prohibition
4.supposition
implying
strong
probability (only in
affirmative sentences)
Well, it's 10 o'clock, I must go now.
You must leave the room at once.
Немедленно выйдите из комнаты.
You mustn't speak to a prisoner in a
foreign language.!
He must be ill. He looks so pale.
The modal verb must has only one form. It is used in
present-time contexts with reference to the present or future
and in combination with the Perfect infinitive it refers to the
past. In past-time contexts this form is used only in reported
speech, i.e. the rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed
with must.
e.g.
It is six o’clock. She must have come home.
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I knew I must go there.
The modal verb must in the meaning of obligation,
command or prohibition is followed by the non-perfect
common infinitive:
e.g. We must begin before five, or we shan’t finish our
work in time.
Must implying strong probability is followed by any form
of the infinitive:
e.g. Jane is busy. She must be packing for the trip.
Must expressing probability is not used:
a) with reference to the future. Instead of the modal verb
the adverbs probably and evidently are used.
e.g. He will probably feel lonely.
b) in negative and interrogative forms. There are several
ways of expressing the negative meaning of probability in such
sentences: by negative affixes, or negative pronouns, or
lexically.
e.g. You must have misunderstood me.
They must have been inattentive.
She must have failed to recognize you.
He must have had no chance to warn you.
The letter must have never reached them.
The letter must have been left unanswered.
No one must have seen him there.
He must be quite unaware of the circumstances.
Besides the above mentioned shades of meaning,
sometimes accompanied by emphasis, the modal verb must
may be used solely for the sake of empbasis. In this case must
is not translated into Russian, it merely emphasises some action
or idea.
e.g. Of course after I gave her my advice she must go and
do the opposites
(... она вдруг пойди и сделай наоборот).
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As we were starting what must he do but cut his finger (...
он возьми да и порежь себе палец).
Must / may
Must and may can be compared in two meanings:
1) Both may and must serve to express supposition but
their use is not parallel. May denotes supposition implying
uncertainty whereas the supposition expressed by must implies
strong probability.
e.g. For all I know, he may be an actor. His face seems
so familiar.
He must be an actor. His voice carries so well.
I saw him an hour ago. He may still be in his office now.
He always comes at 10 sharp. So he must be in his office
now.
2) May and must are used to express prohibition in
negative sentences. But may is seldom found in this meaning.
In negative answers to questions with may asking for
permission we generally find must not or cannot.
e.g. «May I smoke here?» «No, you mustn't (you
can't).»
TO HAVE TO, HAVE GOT TO
The modal verb to have to expresses:
1.obligation or necessity
arising out of circumstances
(должен = приходится,
вынужден)
I have to get up at 6 every
day. My working day begins at
8.
Last night Den suddenly
became ill. We had to call the
doctor.
2. absence of necessity (in You don’t have to go there.
negative sentences)
Вам не нужно / нет
необходимости идти туда.
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(Compare: You musn’t go
there. Вам нельзя идти туда)
To have to as a modal verb is not a defective verb. It can
have the category of person and number and all the necessary
tense-aspect forms as well as verbals. It is followed by a toinfinitive and combines only with the non-perfect form of it.
e.g. He is an invalid and has to have a nurse.
She knew what she had to do.
My impression was that he was having to force
himself to talk.
The interrogative and negative forms of the modal verb to
have to are built up by means of the auxiliary verb to do.
e.g. Why do I have to do everything?
Have got to has the same basic meaning as have to. The
difference lies in that have to usually denotes a habitual action
and have got to denotes a particular action.
e.g. Do you have to get up early every morning?
Have you got to get up early tomorrow morning.
There is sometimes a difference between «must» and
«have to». With «must» the speaker is giving his own feelings,
saying «he» thinks it necessary:
e.g. I must visit my friend. He is ill.
I must write to Ann. I haven't written to her for ages.
We can only use «must» to talk about the present and
future; «have to» can be used in three tense forms:
e.g. I had to go to hospital.
e.g. I am afraid I can't come tomorrow. I will have to
work late.
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TO BE TO
The modal verb to be to expresses:
1.an agreement or arrangement, We were to meet at the
part of a plan
entrance to the theatre at a
quarter to nine.
2. a strict order/prohibition
You are to go straight to
your room. Сейчас же иди в
свою комнату.
You are not to tell anybody
about it.
Не смей никому говорить
об этом.
3.something
thought
as Sally wanted Morris to be
unavoidable
(предстоит, friendly with her, but
суждено)
evidently it was not to be.
4.impossibility (in negative They are not to be trusted.
sentences)
Им нельзя доверять.
To be to as a modal verb is used in the present and past
indefinite tenses.
e.g. We are to meet at six.
We were to meet at six.
In the meaning of obligation arising out of an
arrangement the modal verb to be to in the Past Indefinite tense
is followed by the perfect infinitive if it is necessary to
emphasize that the action didn’t take place.
e.g. She was to have graduated in June,
but unfortunately fell ill.
The meaning of impossibility of the modal verb to be to
is implied in negative sentences or in sentences containing
words with negative meaning. In this case the passive form of
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the non-perfect infinitive is used, unless it is a question
beginning with the interrogative adverbs how, where.
e.g. Nothing was to be done under the
circumstances.
He was nowhere to be found.
How am I to repay you for your kindness?
Here are some set expressions with the modal verb to
be to:
What am I to do?
Что мне делать? Как мне быть?
What is to become of me?
Что со мною станется
(будет)?
Where am I to go?
Куда же мне деваться?
Must / to have to / to be to
The verbs must, to have to and to be to have one meaning
in common, that of obligation. In the present tense the verbs
come very close to each other in their use, though they preserve
their specific shades of meaning. Thus must indicates
obligation or necessity from the speaker's viewpoint, it
expresses obligation imposed by the speaker.
e.g. I must do it. (I want to do it.)
He must do it himself. (I shan't help him.)
To have to expresses obligation or necessity imposed by
circumstances.
e.g. It is a pity you have to go now. (It's time for
you to your train.)
To be to expresses obligation or necessity resulting from
an arrangement.
e.g. We are to wait for them at the entrance. (We
have arranged to meet there, so we must wait
for them at the place.)
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Sometimes the idea of obligation is absent and to be
presses only a previously arranged plan.
e.g. We are to go to the cinema
In the past tense, however, the difference in the use of the
three verbs is quite considerable. Must has no past tense. It is
used in past-time contexts only in reported speech.
e.g. He said he must do it himself.
Had to + infinitive is generally used to denote an action
which was realized in the past as a result of obligation or
necessity imposed by circumstances.
e.g. I had to sell my car. (It was necessary for
me to do it because I needed money.)
He had to put on his raincoat. (It was raining
hard out side and he would have got wet if he
hadn't.)
Was (were) to + infinitive is used to denote an action
planned for the future which is viewed from the past. The
action was not realized in the past and the question remains
open as to whether it is going to take place.
e.g. We were to meet him at the station. (It is
not clear from the sentence if the action will take
place.)
If the speaker wishes to make it clear at once that the plan
was not fulfilled, the perfect infinitive is used to show that.
e.g. We were to have met him at the station.
(That means that we failed to meet him.)
However, the simple infinitive may also be used in this
case.
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NEED
The modal verb need expresses:
MEANING
EXAMPLES
EQUIVALENT
S
absence
of She needn’t get don’t have to…
up early. The She doesn’t have to
necessity
classes begin at get up early.
ten.
(Можно не…)
something
that The water was Didn’t have to is no
You longer an equivalent.
has been done clean.
denotes
the
was unnecessary needn’t
have It
boiled it.
absence of necessity
(Можно было и without implying that
не…;
зря; the
action
was
напрасно)
performed.
The modal verb need may be either a defective or a
regular verb. As a defective verb need has only one form and
combines with a bare infinitive. In reported speech it remains
unchanged. As a regular verb it has the past indefinite form
needed and regular negative and interrogative forms.
There is a slight difference in the usage of regular and
irregular forms. The regular form is used mainly when the
following infinitive denotes habitual action. The defective form
is more common when one particular occasion is referred to:
e.g. Do I need to show my pass every time?
Need I show you my pass now?
The defective form is mainly restricted to negative and
interrogative sentences, whereas the regular verb can be used in
all types of sentences and is therefore more common.
80
In negative statements need followed by a perfect
infinitive indicates that the action expressed by the infinitive
was performed but was not necessary. It implies a waste of
time or effort, and is therefore translated by зря, незачем, не к
чему было.
e.g. You needn't have spent all the money. Now
we've got nothing left.
Зря ты потратил все деньги, не к чему было тратить
....
The difference between the two forms of need in negative
sentences is as follows: the regular verb indicates that the
action was not done because it was unnecessary, whereas the
defective verb shows that the action, although unnecessary, was
carried out. Compare the following examples:
Didn't need to do smth = It wasn't necessary, so
probably not done.
e.g. We didn't need to say anything at all, which was a
great comfort.
She didn't need to open the drawer because it was
already open
.
Needn't have done smth. = It was not necessaiy, but
done nonetheless.
e.g. You needn't have said anything. Then he would
never have known about it.
She needn't have opened the drawer. She found it
empty when she did.
SHALL
The modal verb shall expresses:
promise, oath or strong intention It shall be done as
(used in the 2nd and 3rd person in you wish.
81
affirmative and negative sentences)
threat or warning
(used in the 2nd and 3rd person in
affirmative and negative sentences )
a suggestion or offer
(used in questions in the 1st person
singular and plural)
She shell pay for it,
she shall.
Shall I get you a
chair?
In present-day English shall is not a purely modal verb. It
always combines its modal meaning of obligation with the
function of an auxiliary verb in the future tense.
As a modal verb shall is not translated into Russian,
usually its meaning is rendered by emphatic intonation.
Shall is combined only with a non-perfect infinitive.
The above three meanings are closely connected with the
old meaning of obligation which is at present not common in
spoken English and which is normally confined to formal or
archaic style (official regulations or other documents).
e.g. The Society's nominating committee shall
nominate the person for the office of president
(...должны выставить кандидата...).
This meaning is found in subordinate clauses.
e.g. It has been decided that the nomination shall not he
opposed.
WILL / WOULD
The modal verb will expresses:
1.Willingness,
intention,
determination
I will write as soon as I can.
Я непременно напишу, как
только смогу.
He wouldn't answer my
question (he refused to answer ...)
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Will you pass the salt, please?
2. A polite request
or an offer (occurs only
Would you please lend me
in questions)
your pencil?
3. A command
You will do exactly as I say.
(would is never used in
Will
you
be
quiet!
this meaning)
(Замолчишь, ли ты наконец?)
He will try to mend it himself
4.Insistence,
(he insists on mending it himself).
resistence
The engine wouldn’t start
(Мотор никак не заводился)
What will be will be (Чему
5.Inevitability,
characteristic behavior, быть, того не минновать).
Boys
will
be
boys
quality, or something
(Мальчишки всегда остаются
naturally expected
мальчишками)
You would be late! Конечно,
6. Disapproval of
something
expected ты опять опоздал.
(only would is used)
This will be our train (Это,
7. Prediction, a
certainty about the наверное, наш поезд)
present or the future
(in a similar way as
must)
Like shall, will is not a purely modal verb. It almost
always combines its modal meaning with its functioning as an
auxiliary verb expressing futurity. Will has two forms: will for
the present tense and would for the past tense. The latter form
is used in two ways:
a)
in past-time contexts to express an actual
fact and
b)
in present-time contexts to express
unreality or as a milder and more polite form of will.
83
While shall and should are treated as two different verbs
in modern English, will and would are looked upon as forms of
the same verb, although in a few cases their meanings differ.
Thus would expresses volition, persistence referring to the
past:
e.g.
She was going away and would not say
where she was going(volition)
Она уезжала и не хотела сказать, куда едет.
I asked him not to bang the door, but he would do
it (persistence)
Я просил его не хлопать дверью, а он все
продолжал хлопать.
Will is usually combined with the non-perfect infinitive.
Only expressing prediction or a certainty about the present or
the future it is followed by different forms of the infinitive.
Note the expression:
You would, would you? – Ax, ты так!
SHOULD
The modal verb should expresses:
1. Moral
obligation, moral duty
2. Criticism,
faultfinding
3. Advice,
desirability
4. Probability
Private firearms should be
banned. Личное оружие следует
запретить.
You should have put more
sugar in the pie. It isn't sweet
enough.
You should consult a doctor.
The effect of the tax should be
felt in high prices (will probably be
felt)
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Historically should was the past form of shall and both
the forms expressed obligation. But in present-day English they
have developed different meanings and are treated as two
different verbs.
Should followed by the non-perfect infinitive may be
used with reference to the present and future and is not
changed in reported speech.
e.g.
You should be more careful.
I told him he should be more careful.
Should is nearly always interchangeable with ought to, as
their meanings coincide.
When combined with the perfect infinitive should
denotes criticism, faultfinding; the statement indicates that
something desirable has not been done.
A negative statement indicates that something wrong has
been done.
e.g.
You shouldn't have done that. It was stupid.
Вам не следовало это делать.
They should never have married. They are so
unhappy.
Им вообще не следовало (не нужно было)
жениться.
OUGHT TO
The modal verb ought to expresses:
You ought to look after
1. Moral duty, moral
obligation (which is not your children better (you don't
always fulfilled)
always do it).
You ought to have
2. Reproach
helped him (but you didn't).
You oughtn't to have
laughed at his mistakes.
85
3. Advisability
4.Probability
(something that can
naturally expected)
You ought to see a
doctor.
Apples ought to grow
be well here.
You ought to be hungry
by now (you probably are, but
I'm not
certain).
The modal verb ought has only one form. It is not
changed in reported speech.
Ought combines with the to-infinitive. When followed by
the non-perfect or continuous infinitive it indicates reference to
the present or future. In indirect speech it may also refer the
action to the past.
e.g.
You ought to be ashamed of yourself.
I told him that he ought to do it, so he did it.
She told him he ought not to go away.
When used with the perfect infinitive ought means that
something right has not been done, a desirable action has not
been carried out, and it, therefore, implies reproach.
e.g.
Не ought to have been more
careful (he was not careful enough).
Ему следовало бы быть более осторожным.
Ought not + perfect infinitive means that something
wrong has been done and it is now too late to change it. It may
also be viewed as a reproach.
e.g.
She told him he ought not to have
done it (but he had done it).
The opposite to ought to is needn't used to mean that the
action is unnecessary.
86
e.g.
We ought to wash the dishes, but we
needn't dry them, because they will dry themselves.
Ought to + infinitive is used when describing something
exciting, funny or beautiful in the meaning of I wish you
could.
e.g.
You ought to hear the way he plays the
piano!
Must / should / ought to
All the three verbs serve to express obligation. Must,
however, sounds more forceful, peremptory.
e.g.
You must do it at once. (Вы должны
(обязаны) сделать это немедленно.)
Both should and ought to express obligation,
advisability, desirability and are used when must would sound
too peremptory.
e.g.
You should do it at once. You ought to
do it at once.
(Вам
следует
(нужно)
сделать
это
немедленно.)
Should and ought to are very much alike in meaning and
are often interchangeable. In using ought to, however, we lay
more stress on the meaning of moral obligation, whereas
should is common in instructions and corrections.
e.g.You ought to help him; he is in trouble.
You should use the definite article in this
sentence.
Must, ought to and should serve to express supposition
implying strong probability. Must, however, seems to be in
more frequent use than the other two verbs.
DARE
The modal verb dare may be defective or regular.
87
As a defective verb dare has two forms: dare for the
present tense and dared for the past tense. It is used chiefly in
interrogative and negative sentences. It has the meaning – to
have the courage or independence to do something, to venture.
e.g. How dare he speak to you like that? (I
wonder at such impudence.)
How dare you sneak into my room like this?
As a regular verb dare has a limited paradigm of finite
forms and no verbals. It may have two meanings:
He didn't dare to stop me
1. To venture, to have
the courage or impudence (he didn't have the courage).
(in negative statements)
I dared him to jump (I
2. To challenge, to
challenged him to do it).
defy
I dare you to say this
straight to her face.
Попробуй, скажи ей это
прямо в лицо.
Note the following combinations with the modal verb
dare:
I dare say – I suppose, no doubt.
I dare say you are right. – Очень возможно, что вы
правы.
I dare say he will come later. – Полагаю (пожалуй), он
придет позже.
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Practical exercises
CAN, COULD
Exercise 1. Translate into Russian and comment on the use of
the modal verb «can».
1. I am sorry you won't let me look at the picture once again.
But that can't be helped.
2. These words were unexpected for me, so what could I do or
say?
3. I could not possibly let him tell Mother what he really
thought of her.
4. 'Well, as soon as you are dry, you shall be varnished and
framed, and sent home. Then you can do what you like with
yourself. (0. Wilde)
5. My head was still dizzy, my sight was dim, and my limbs
were feeble; I could not soon recover myself.
6. You can't have forgotten that you assured me most
solemnly that nothing in the world would induce you to
send it to any exhibition.
7. I wish I could believe you were lying: I wish it more now
than ever; since even you cannot explain this mystery to
me.
8. I cannot explain it to you but I have a subtle premonition of
something terrible that is in store for us all.
9. Can it be that Jonathan had betrayed her feelings, her
devotions, her affection towards the best in his nature?
10. There can have taken place a miracle for how, otherwise,
they would be able to get through it all? How can they have
forgotten the hostility separating them for decades?
11. Agnes left a couple of minutes ago and if you had come
earlier you could have caught her.
12. You could have said at least that you did not agree with
them. They don't know him as intimately as you do: you are
his brother.
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13. Can she have misplaced the jewels? By all means it is a
good idea to warn the police about their loss.
Exercise 2. Fill in the blanks with « can/could» followed by the
appropriate form of the infinitive in brackets.
1. ... this letter (to write) by Rodger a week ago? When I saw
him last he did not even mention it to me.
2. Going to a picnic was a great pleasure for everybody; for
the ladies ... (to talk) over all their household problems, the
gentlemen ... (to discuss) politics without their family
interfering and the children and dogs ... do whatever they
liked.
3. How ... you (to trust) this man who has already caused so
much trouble to your family by just his presence here?
4. Your answering machine has spoilt the last recording. I ...
(not to recognize) the voice though it seemed fairly
familiar.
5. ... she already (to study) at the University? I remember her
at the age of five; she was the most amusing child I have
ever seen.
6. I've known him for already fifteen years and I am perfectly
certain that he ... (not to mean) that. You ... (to
misunderstand) him or vice versa.
Exercise 3. Complete the following sentences using «could» or
«was/were able to».
1. It was a fine day yesterday, so we______have a picnic, and
we enjoyed it very much.
2. He suddenly felt ill, but he______finish his speech,
although at the end he could hardly stand.
3. He spoke very little French when he left school, but
he______understand the language.
90
4. I got to the station at 9.50 a.m. and catch the 9.55 a.m.
train. I was very pleased I didn't have to wait for the next
train.
5. He has always been good at Math's. But even he _____
solve this difficult problem.
6. The town was full of visitors, and we didn't know where we
would spend the night, but at last we ______ find two
vacant rooms in a small hotel.
7. Before his illness, he______work fourteen hours a day if he
had to.
8. He was very strong; he _______ ski all day and dance all
night.
9. I was a long way from the stage. I ______ see all right but I
_____not hear very well.
10. We ____ borrow umbrellas, so we didn't get wet.
11. When the garage had repaired our car we______continue
our journey.
12. When I arrived everyone was asleep. Fortunately I
_____wake my sister and she let me in.
Exercise 4.Translate into English using «can/could» or
«was/were able to»:
1. Я не могу закончить работу сегодня.
2. Можете ли вы перевести эту статью на французский
язык?
3. Неужели телевидение еще не сообщило о том, что
произошло сегодня ночью?
4. Он смог починить свой велосипед, несмотря на то, что
у него не было необходимых инструментов.
5. Когда он приехал в Лондон, он смог обойтись без
переводчика.
6. В прошлом году он не мог бегло говорить поанглийски.
91
7. Он смог починить свой велосипед, несмотря на то, что
у него не было необходимых инструментов.
5. Когда он приехал в Лондон, он смог обойтись без
переводчика.
6. В прошлом году он не мог бегло говорить поанглийски.
11. Разве вам не сообщили о заседании?
12. Эту работу нельзя сделать в такой короткий срок.
13. Неужели вы не узнали меня? Мы учились с вами в
одной школе.
14. Эти цифры можно найти в любом справочнике.
15. Не может быть, чтобы это было бриллиантовое кольцо.
Слишком уж низка цена на него.
MAY, MIGHT
Exercise 5. Translate into Russian and comment on the use of
the modal verb «may».
1.
'Shall I tell you of what I reminded me?' 'You may'. 'Of
the foul German spectre – the Vampire'.
2. This picture may not be ever shown to the public; you must
remember it very well.
3. I wanted to be weak that I might avoid the awful passage of
further suffering I saw laid out for me.
4. Georgiana said that I might use the guest rooms in her
village cottage as well as her conservatory and gardens.
5. You might have telephoned to the embassy and settled
everything with the visa so that I might leave this country.
6. You must have gone by the side door: your boots are
muddy.
7. Jack might often be seen sitting on the porch with a pipe in
his mouth, contemplating.
8. I asked if he might bring his wife down next Saturday.
92
9. Aunt Augusta has invited us both for dinner next Sunday
but she is afraid you might be bored.
10. There was so much they had shared together and so much
more they might have shared that they had not.
11. Joney said that 1 might take his car whenever I wanted it.
12. 'Did she say where she was going?' 'She may have left a
message.'
13. 'Did she say where she was going?' 'No, but she might have
left a message. She knows I am always getting so nervous
when she leaves all of a sudden.'
14. 'What has happened to the dog? It is not here.' 'Mom may
have taken it round for a walk in the park.'
15. She gave a shrug of impatience. 'This affair may well fade
into nothing.'
Exercise 6. Fill in the blanks with «may/might » followed by
the appropriate form of the infinitive in brackets.
1. 'Who is this elegant woman walking through the garden
together with Annie?' – 'I don't see from here but it... (to be)
her mother. She is always so exquisitely dressed.'
2. '... I (to smoke) here?' – 'Yes, it's perfectly all right with me
- I never mind when people smoke.'
3. 'I think we ... (to go) skiing to Austria next February. I hope
we'll do, Jacob is so keen on skiing.'
4. 'Where is Val?' – 'I am not certain... I think he ... (to play)
squash. Let's go and see if I am right.'
5. 'Where is Val?' – 'I have heard something about his love for
plants and flowers. So he ... (to go) already to the Botanic
Gardens without waiting for us.'
6. Take your camera. There you ... (to come across)
something worth remembering.
Exercise 7. Supply the correct form of the verbs« can» and
«may» in the sentences expressing permission and prohibition.
93
1. You ... use my car tomorrow since I do not need it: I am
staying at home.
2. 'I ... come in?' 'Yes, do, please.'
3. You ... not smoke here. Look, there is a «No smoking» sign
over the door.
4. You ... not do it without your parents' consent.
5. You ... go now; but remember what I have told you.
6. I ... not tell you about it. I have promised to keep silent
about this.
7. You ... not watch this film until you have completed your
homework.
8. No one ... sit down while the King is speaking.
9. Nigel said that I ... stay in his apartment while he was in
New York putting his affairs in order.
10. Colonel said that I... come and see him whenever I thought
I had important information for him.
Exercise 8. Paraphrase the following sentences using the
verbs «can/could» and «may/might» where possible.
1. Perhaps she was busy yesterday and couldn't finish the task
in time.
2. Is it possible that he is a good tennis player? I have never
known him to be a sportsman.
3. Perhaps you forgot to lock the car door and somebody has
stolen it.
4. It is impossible that he should not know about his sister's
arrival.
5. Perhaps he will come in time.
6. Is it possible that she has followed her parents' advice?
7. Perhaps he is having lunch now.
8. It is possible that he has already come and you will soon
hear from him.
9. It is impossible, I think, to cross this river: it is too wide
and full-flowing.
94
MUST, TO BE TO, TO HAVE TO
Exercise 9. Translate into Russian and comment on the use of
the verb «must».
1. 'No, Basil, you must tell me,' insisted Dorian Gray. 'I have a
right to know'.
2. Dorian shook his head. 'You must not ask me about that,
Basil'.
3. I must part with you for my whole life and I must begin a
new existence amongst strange faces and strange scenes.
4. Since I haven't seen anything, the vision you had must have
been unreal.
5. That woman was, must have been Grace Poole.
6. I always have a warm corner for Roberta. I must try and
find her before I go abroad.
7. 'When does Mr. Johnson come back?' 'Next month'. – 'You
must be missing him terribly then'.
8. Mrs. Cromwell took us around her yacht. There was no
doubt that it must have cost her a fortune.
9. 'Pull yourself together,' I said. 'You must be imagining all
this'.
10. This house must have been pretty a long time ago.
11. Once a professional, one always must be a professional.
12. I haven't seen her for ages. She must have changed since
then. I am sure I won't recognize her.
13. It must have been the golden hair that penetrated her with a
sort of glowing and made her look like a fairy.
Exercise 10. Supply the correct form of the infinitive with the
modal verb «must».
1. His mind turned to the accident. It was the kind of thing
which must (not to occur) again.
95
2. It is lovely to have you home again. We must (to have) a
party to celebrate your arrival.
3. 'I must (to get) old,' she said, 'to be talking like that'.
4. 'Nowadays big hotels must (to do) tremendous business,'
thought old Jolyon.
5. 'You must (to be) right. I am not going to argue with you
since I share your point of view.'
6. But at last he rose realizing dully that he had work which lit
must (to do).
7. I must (to sit) there for a quarter of an hour waiting and
thinking about it before I saw the letter.
8. He had said that he himself was an admirer of French
philosophers. This must (to influence) him in making his
decision.
9. At half past eight came Lucy, wet to the skin. She must (to
wait) for Sid since the rain had started.
10. Someone of us two must (to go away) to prevent a disaster.
We definitely can't work together.
11. The old lady must (to be) a beauty once. Susy wished to set
Mrs. Durley's picture to find out if she was right.
12. Bring me that cigarette-case. It must (to lie) on the salver in
the hall.
13. Nick brought the repaired bicycle. He must (to work) since
early morning today to finish in time.
Exercise 11 A. Paraphrase the following sentences using
«must» to express supposition. Try to avoid using the negative
particle« not».
1. I am perfectly certain that he did not manage to catch the
train.
2. I am sorry! Now I see that I did not recognize you.
3. I am sure that he was not noticed by anyone of us.
4. She definitely did not understand this rule.
5. He obviously did not know that he was awkward.
96
6. He evidently did not answer his mother's message.
7. He evidently wasn't worrying about anything.
B. Translate into English paying attention to the way you
render supposition p the future and in negative sentences.
1. Он, должно быть, не осознавал, что вёл себя бестактно.
2. Они, должно быть, ничего не заметили и поэтому не
стали волноваться.
3. Я, должно быть, не так произнесла Вашу фамилию!
Извините!
4. Вы,
должно
быть,
не
осознали
важности
происходящего.
5. Скорее всего, он так ничего и не узнает.
6. Должно быть, он позвонит вам вечером. Не отходите от
телефона.
7. Скорее всего, он решит это дело в вашу пользу.
Exercise 12. Fill in the blanks using the modal verbs to be to»,
«to have to» or «must».
1. Uncle Nick's things ... to be moved out of his room so that
it could be redecorated.
2. For the next few weeks I ... to stay in bed. Everyone came
to visit me and I ... (not) to do the cooking.
3. The chief engineer who ... to work for General Motors had
not arrived yet.
4. They went to see Mabel's new house. Mabel said that only
the last touches ... to be added and she ... to move into it
quite soon.
5. That day I had my agent waiting to see me after his
business trip to Italy and I ... to cut my visitor short.
6. Both sisters ... have been ashamed of having spoken as they
had in front of a third person.
7. But at last he rose realizing dully that there was work which
he ... to do.
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8. a) He looks very tired. He ... have been working since
breakfast.
b) He ... to work hard to earn at least something to provide
for his family
9. You ... take the dog away. I won't have it here any longer.
10. At this boarding school the discipline is rather strict: the
children ... to go to bed at 8 o'clock.
11. My mother says that I ... (not) to hurry home because she
herself is out playing bridge.
12. a) My car is being repaired now and I ... to walk here this
morning.
b) My car was being repaired and 1 ... to collect it that
afternoon.
13. a) He ... to stay the night with us because I won't let him go
out in such stormy weather.
b) He ... to stay the night with us, for he has missed the
train.
14. 'I told my husband that he ... (not) to smoke in the sittingroom.' 'I ... (not) to do so: my husband is a born gentleman
and he never does it'.
15. In March I ... to be in Manchester: I am invited as the best
man to my best friend's wedding and according to his plans
I ... (not) to come back until early in April.
16. The new Governor ... to arrive in May. By then everything
... to be ready to organize a fabulous meeting.
Exercise 13. Translate into English.
1. Эндрю должен был встретиться с Майком за ланчем на
следующий день, но он не видел причины рассказывать
об этом своему адвокату.
2. На следующий день Гринам показали Прадо, а вечером
они должны были ужинать в Савое.
3. В это время Флору уже было обычно не застать в её
кабинете.
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4. По радио объявили, что вечером должен выступать
президент.
5. Ночью корабль зашел в порт, где они должны были
заправиться топливом и пополнить запасы пресной
воды.
6. Он должен был привстать со своего места, чтобы
увидеть, что происходило на трибуне.
7. В этот момент вошел Кларк, которого мне совсем не
нужно было представлять гостям: он был слишком
известен.
8. Мне нужно было всё ещё раз хорошенько обдумать, и
вот я здесь и готов нести ответственность за всё.
9. Книге, на которую он потратил половину своей жизни,
не суждено было появиться на свет до его смерти.
10. Они жили долго и счастливо и им суждено было
умереть в один день.
11. Электричество и газ были отключены из-за
разбушевавшегося шторма, и им пришлось готовить
пищу на огне.
12. Он любил спать на улице, но в ту ночь поднялась буря,
и ему пришлось перебраться в дом.
13. В это время, как обычно, Монику можно было видеть
через распахнутое окно. Она играла на рояле один из
вальсов Шопена (Chopin).
NEED
Exercise 14. Open the brackets using the correct form of the
infinitive. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. You needn't (send) the car for us, we could have walked.
2. She washed up all the plates, she needn't (wash) them up,
because they had a dishwasher.
3. Why do you want to press the skirt? It is not creased at all.
You needn't (press) it at all.
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4. I knew I had to be at the office on Saturday; I needn't
(remind).
5. You needn't (help) him. (You helped him but he didn’t
need your help.)
6. He was wide awake when his mother called him at seven
o'clock this morning; she needn't (call).
Exercise 15. Explain the meaning of «need» in the following
sentences and translate them into Russian:
1. «Why don't you go and look at the snake?» her mother
suggested. «You needn't go up close.»
2. It's not easy to hold responsibility. I needn't tell you that.
3. Angela opened the door and walked in. Her daughter was
still up. «You needn't have stayed up, waiting for me,» said
Angela.
4. If you don't like the cocktail, you needn't drink it.
5. «Do you remember what you did when you were twentyfive?» «You need not have reminded me of it.»
6. Need we insist upon the date?
7. You needn't worry.
8. Need you bring your girl-friend with you?
9. She said that if he didn't like to come to her parties he
needn't come at all.
10. I was rather afraid that he might act as though we were
intimate friends, which would have been embarrassing. But
I need not have worried.
Exercise 16. Translate the following sentences into English
using« need»:
1. To, что она сделала, так глупо, что нам незачем
обсуждать это.
2. Озеро было так близко, что даже Алан, который не
любил ходить пешком, согласился, что не нужно брать
машину.
3. Нам не стоит варить всю картошку.
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Нам нужно переодеться к обеду?
У нас еще масса времени. Мы зря спешили.
А нам обязательно туда идти?
Тебе незачем тратить на них все деньги.
«Я сказал твоему дяде, что поговорю е тобой». – «Ты
напрасно беспокоился. Я пообещал своим родителям
побыть здесь еще немного».
9. Ты знаешь детей. Они все ломают. Мне нет нужды
говорить тебе об этом.
10. Он знал, что ему не надо никому ничего объяснять.
11. Я думаю, что нам незачем уделять ей столько
внимания.
12. Тебе незачем бояться меня.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Exercise 17. Explain the meanings of «will» and «would» in
the following sentences and say in which cases they may be
used in a parallel way.
1. Old Lady Bland argued with him, but he would not listen to
reason.
2. Each time we went out together he would show me
something new, something interesting.
3. I will say it again and again.
4. He had a wound that wouldn't heal.
5. Bring him back, if he'll come.
6. All that I would tell them was that Uncle Nick was ill.
7. She was the sort of girl any man might be glad to bring to a
dance if she would come.
8. I know there is a theory that a book, if it is any good, will
always find a publisher.
9. When he returned I repeated my offer of food, but he would
take nothing.
10. «What time is it?» «Half past twelve.» «Well, the last bus
will have left.»
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11. Of ten, after dinner, he will settle down in an armchair to
read the paper.
12. He would smoke a pipe before going to bed.
13. Shut the door, would you?
14. «He talked of his new car the whole evening.» «He would.»
Exercise 18. Translate the following sentences into English
using« shall» wherever possible:
1. Сколько мне заплатить носильщику?
2. Когда мы узнаем что-нибудь, вы непременно услышите
об этом.
3. «Вы отпустите меня домой?» – «Нет. Во вторник ты
отправишься пароходом в Сан-Франциско».
4. Это можно сделать и это будет сделано, если ты только
поможешь мне.
5. «Тебе поиграть?» – спросила она. – «Да, пожалуйста».
6. Когда он говорит «Сделай», я отвечаю «Будет
сделано».
Exercise 19. Translate the following sentences into English
using «will» or«would»:
1. Пожалуйста, расскажи мне, что случилось.
2. Джон попытался открыть крышку бака, но она никак не
поддавалась.
3. Я бы все сделал, чтобы помочь ему.
4. Он сказал, что был бы рад, если бы я согласился
приехать и погостить у него несколько дней.
5. Он попытался объясниться, но я не стал его слушать.
6. «Он не согласился со мной». – «Он такой!»
7. Сегодня воскресенье, и все магазины, естественно,
закрыты.
8. Он несколько раз чиркнул зажигалкой, но она не
сработала.
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9. Я спросил его жену, что с ним, но она не пожелала
отвечать.
10. Вечера он по большей части проводил за игрой в
шахматы.
11. Я заплатил деньги, и я останусь здесь.
12.Он погасил свет, но сон к нему не шел.
13. Я, пожалуй, пойду и посмотрю телевизор, если вы не
возражаете.
14. Я хотел посмотреть выставку, но меня не впустили, так
как было поздно.
15. «Дядя Эдвин, – позвал мальчик. – Ты обещал мне
помочь с моим игрушечным поездом. Он не работает».
16. Я предложил ей сходить к доктору, но она и слышать
не хотела об этом.
17. Он часто засыпал с книжкой в руках и с очками на
носу.
18. После работы он обычно дожидался нас у моста.
OUGHT TO, SHOULD
Exercise 20. Use the required form of the infinitive after
«ought to» and «should»:
1. But we ought (to have) your brother here, to tell us exactly
how far we can go.'
2. Tea is between half past five and six, and it should (to be)
ready now.
3. He couldn't see anything. He thought that he ought (to
bring) a torch.
4. Should the baby (to play) with a box of matches?
5. If you're in love it ought (to make) you happy. You ought
(to laugh).
6. The doctor said it was appendicitis and she ought (to
operate) on.
7. You should (to see) him yesterday on horseback.
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8. One day the headmaster came on Jack, who should (to
sweat) on the sports ground, sitting comfortably in a
gardener's shed reading a book and eating a large piece of
cocoa-nut ice.
9. «Your father and I should (to arrange) everything before I
came here,» he said.
10. Oughtn't you (to answer) that letter now?
11. Where is his car? He shouldn't (to leave) it unattended.
12. He drove at great speed. He knew that about this hour the
guests should (to arrive) at his house.
13. «Well, I'm very glad to know at last what it was all about.»
«You ought (to tell) before.»
14. Then he should (to laugh), but instead he heard himself
saying: «Everything you say is quite true.»
Exercise. 21. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
choosing between «ought to» and «should».
1. He looked more than ever out of place; he ... have stayed at
home.
2. I don't think people ... gossip like that about other people.
3. She said, «You know, I think I ... get across to the station
and see what goes on.»
4. I want him to do what's right. It ... (not) be necessary to
persuade a man to do that.
5. My mother frowned at him and shook her head in a way
that meant that he ... (not) say things like that in front of
me.
6. «Strange,» said the boy, «how, when people are either very
old or very young, they are always wanting to do something
they ... (not) do.»
7. «It is very wicked of you,» she said. «You ... be ashamed of
yourself.»
8. After she had gone I found myself wondering whether I ...
do anything for her.
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9. I'll see and speak to Maurice. He ... (not) behave like that.
10. I expect you to tell me the way to do it. You ... know.
11. She is a clever girl and her French ... be perfect.
12. The children were out dancing when they ... have been
learning their lessons. 13.1 realize now I ... (not) have said
anything.
14. «I'm not very fit. I'm having trouble with my leg.» «I see.
Well, I think you ... go and see a doctor I know.»
15. Anne was quite capable of coming down to make herself a
cup of cocoa when she ... be asleep.
16. He felt very low and I thought I ... do all I could to cheer
him up.
Exercise 22. Translate the following sentences into English
using «ought to» and «should» wherever possible:
1. Я прошу прощения. Мне не следовало это говорить.
2. Я думаю, вам следует проявлять больше уважения к
старшим.
3. Я подумал, что тебе следовало бы знать об этом.
4. Теперь я расстроил ее. Мне не нужно было этого
говорить.
5. «Я сказал что-нибудь такое, чего мне не следовало
говорить?» – спросил он у матери.
6. Не стоит задавать таких вопросов.
7. Ну, что же, вы были правы. Мне не так надо было
сделать это.
8. Как ты думаешь, чем мне следовало бы заняться?
9. Я был с тобой более откровенен, чем следовало бы.
10. Ей надо было бы раньше вспомнить об этом.
Exercise. 23. Fill in the blanks with the modal verbs «must»,
«should» and «ought to» followed by the appropriate form of
the infinitives in brackets.
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1. You are grown up enough and you ... (to know) that such
things ... (not to say) in public.
2. He could not see anything in the cave. He thought he ... (to
bring) a torch.
3. If one is in love it is only natural that he ... (to be) happy
and radiant.
4. Then, logically, he ... (to laugh) but he heard himself
saying: 'You are absolutely right', instead.
5. How I ... (to know) where you have left your glasses? They
can be anywhere considering your absent-mindedness.
6. It is too late and you are exhausted after such an eventful
day. I ... (to think) about it and (to let) you have a rest.
7. You ... (to take) a long walk every morning. Exercise will
only do you plenty of good.
8. You ... (to be) there with your friends, fighting. While they
are risking their lives it's mean of you to stay here.
9. Children, you ... (to say) good-bye to your granny and then
we ... (to go).
10. 'Who is going to come to young Collins' wedding?' 'I
suppose, there ... (to be) Nick and Sarah, since they are
always invited to any of the gatherings organized by the
Collins and the rest will be quite mixed.'
11. Molly telephoned that she was on her way home, so at any
moment she ... (to arrive).
12. How I ... (to know) what you have told Michael? I did not
hear your talk and I haven't seen Mike as yet.
13. There ... (to be) many guests yesterday, I suppose: the Oxleys are so hospitable.
14. She ... (to tell) the truth then. Now nothing can be done to
improve the situation.
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DARE
Exercise 24. Explain the meaning of «dare» in the following
sentences and translate them into Russian:
1. He felt he dared not reply.
2. Her face bore an expression of such ferocity that no one
dared come near to speak with her.
3. I dare say you're a little tired after your walk, dear.
4. He dared not look into her face.
5. I did not dare to ask him to call off his trip.
6. She was aware that they were too intent upon their business
to think that anyone was watching them, but she dared not
move.
7. She did not dare to leave the house in case he telephoned.
Exercise 25. Translate into English:
1. Ты не осмелишься перепрыгнуть через этот ручей.
Спорим?
2. Разве он осмелится сказать нам то, что думает?
3. Как ты осмеливаешься говорить такие вещи?
4. Как ты думаешь, посмеет он написать мне снова?
5. Мне кажется, вы не осмелитесь купаться в такой
холодной воде.
Exercise. 26. Translate the following sentences into English
using« shouldn’t», «oughtn’t to» or« needn't» followed by a
perfect infinitive:
1. Тебе не следовало уступать ее капризам.
2. Тебе не надо было приводить своего приятеля сегодня.
Я плохо себя чувствую.
3. Мне не следовало говорить им этого.
4. Ты зря заказал номер в гостинице. У нас есть свободная
спальня.
5. Тебе не следовало жениться так рано.
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6. Ты зря написал ему об этом. Он теперь будет
беспокоиться.
7. Ты зря приехал в Лондон. Здесь его нет.
8. Ты зря купил эту машину. Она очень дорогая.
9. Ты зря приехал на машине. Здесь нет моста через реку.
10. Зря ты был с нею так груб. Она теперь плачет.
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NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB (verbals)
There are three non-finite forms of the verb: the Infinitive,
the Gerund, the Participle I, II. They have double natureverbal and nominal. The participle combines the characteristics
of a verb with those of an adjective. The gerund and the
infinitive combine the characteristics of a verb with those of a
noun. The tense distinctions of the verbals are relative not
absolute because the form of the verbal shows whether the
action expressed by the verbal is simultaneous with the action
expressed by the finite verb or prior to it. All the verbals form
predicative constructions.
THE INFINITIVE
The infinitive developed from the verbal noun, which in
course of time became verbalized, retaining at the same time
some of its nominal properties. Thus in Modern English the
infinitive, like the participle and the gerund, has a double
nature, nominal and verbal.
There was nothing left for him to do but watch and
wait. (Ch. Bronte)
The use of «bare» Infinitive.
1. After an auxiliary verb (We shall go there at once).
2. After modal verbs .
3. After verbs denoting sense perception such as to hear, to
see, to feel (I felt my heart jump).
4. After the verb «to let» (Let us be the best friends in the
world).
5. After the verb to make, to have, to get in the meaning
«заставлять» (What makes you think so?).
6. After the verb to bid.
7. After the expressions had better, would rather, would
sooner (You had better go to bed).
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8. In sentences beginning with «why» , (Why not come and
talk to her yourself) .
9. After «can not but»(I can not but smile).
The functions of the infinitive in the sentence.
The infinitive can ,be. used in different syntactic functions. A
single infinitive occurs but seldom: in most cases we find an
infinitive phrase, i. c. an infinitive with one or several
accompanying words.
1. The infinitive as a subject.
To doubt, under the circumstances, is
almost to insult. (Ch- Bronte)
Though the infinitive as the subject sometimes precedes the
predicate, cases when it follows the predicate are far more
common; with the infinitive in the latter position, the sentence
opens.with the introductory it, which serves as an introductory
subject. The introductory it is not translated into Russian.
It is useless to discuss the question. (Eliot)
Бесполезно обсуждать этот вопрос. It was
pleasant to be driving a car again. (Braine)
Было приятно снова вести машину.
2. The infinitive as a predicative.
My intention is to get into parliament.
(Trollope) Моя цель – пройти в
парламент.
The infinitive can also be used as part of a predicative.
The abode of Mrs. Betty was not easy to
find. (Dickens) Жилище миссис Бетти
было нелегко найти.
3. The infinitive as part of a compound verbal predicate.
110
(a)With modal verbs, modal expressions, and verbs
expressing modality the infinitive forms part of a
compound verbal modal predicate.
We must not leave him by himself any
longer. (Dickens) The train was to leave at
midnight. (Hemingway). ...I intend to lead a
better life in the future. (Wilde)
(b) With verbs denoting the beginning, duration, or end of
an action the infinitive forms part of a compound verbal
aspect predicate.
Imprisonment began to tell upon him.
(Dickens) Before daylight it started to
drizzle. (Hemingway) Clare continued to
observe her. (Hardy) ... they gradually
ceased to talk. (Twain)
4. The infinitive as an object.
After the verbs: to allow,to order,to ask, to beg, to request, to
implore, to teach, to instruct we often find two objects, – one
of which is expressed by an infinitive.
He asked me to walk in. (Collins)
5. The infinitive as part of a complex object.
I never saw you act this way before.
6. The infinitive as an attribute.
The infinitive as an attribute is rendered in Russian by an
infinitive (chiefly after abstract nouns), by a subordinate clause
or by a finite verb serving as the predicate of a simple sentence
(after ordinal numerals and the adjective last).
I have not had time to examine this room
yet. (Conan Doyle)
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7. The infinitive as an adverbial modifier.
(a) The infinitive can be an adverbial modifier of purpose.
Laws were not made to be broken, laws
were made to stay within. (Heym)
(b) The infinitive.can be used as an adverbial modifier of
result. This chiefly occurs after adjectives modified by
«the ad verbs enough and too.
His eyes were sharp enough to look after his
own interest. (Heym)
(с) The infinitive can be an adverbial modifier of
comparison (manner),In. this function it is introduced
by the conjunction as if or as though.
She moved her hand towards his lips as if to
stop him.
(d) The infinitive can be used as an adverbial modifier of
attendant circumstances.
Iam sorrytohave raisedyour expectations,
Mr. Blake, only to disappoint them.
8. The Infinitiveas parenthesis.
To speak the truth, I have been a little troubled.
9. Infinitive constructions.
In Modern English we find the following predicative
constructions with the infinitive:
(1) the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction;
(2) the Subjective Infinitive Construction.
(3) The for-to-Infinitive Construction
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THE OBJECTIVE-WITH-THE-INFINITIVE
CONSTRUCTION
The Objective with the Infinitive is a construction in
which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the
common case or a pronoun in the objective case. In the
sentence this construction has the function of a complex object.
THE USE OF THE OBJECTIVE-WITH-THE-INFINITIVE
CONSTRUCTION
1. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used after
verbs denoting sense perception, such as to hear, to see, to
watch,, to feel, to observe, to notice, etc.
I haven't heard anyone call me. (Wilde)
After verbs of sense perception only the Indefinite Infinitive
Active is used. If the meaning is passive we use Participle II.
I saw the fire slowly conquered. (Collins) Я
видел, как пожар постепенно потушили.
If a process is expressed Participle I Indefinite Active is used.
He saw Fleur coming. (Q'alsworthy)
Note 1. – The verb to see is followed by a clause and not by the
Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction when it is
not really a verb of sense perception, i. e. when it means
'to understand'.
I saw that he did not realize the danger.
Я видел (понимал), что он не сознает опасности.
After the verbs to see and to notice the Objective-withthe-Infinitive Construction is not used with the verb to
be; a subordinate clause is used in such cases.
I saw that he was pale.
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Note 2. – When the verb to hear is not a verb of sense
perception, i. e. when it means 'to learn', 'to be told', a
clause or a gerund (and not the Objective-with-theInfinitive) is used.
I hear that he left for the South (of his having left for
the South).
Я слышал (мне сказали), что он уехал на юг.
2.
The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used
after verbs denoting mental activity, such as to know, to think,
to consider, to believe, to suppose, to expect, to imagine, to
find, to feel, to trust, etc.
After verbs of mental activity in the Objective-with-theInfinitive Construction the verb to be is generally used. (This
restriction does not apply to the verb to expect.) The use of this
construction after most verbs of mental activity is more
characteristic of literary than of colloquial style.
I know you to be the most honest, spotless
creature that ever lived. (Hardy)
Я знаю, что вы самое честное и
безупречное существо из всех.
After verbs of mental activity the Perfect Infinitive is used but
seldom.
The doctor found his heart to have stopped
two hours before. (Hardy)
Доктор установил, что его сердце
перестало биться два часа тому назад.
Note. – With the verbs to think, to consider, to find the same
idea can be expressed without an infinitive.
Boldwood thought her beautiful. (Hardy)
She found the subject rather interesting. (Dickens)
You consider yourself an impressive person, eh? (Shaw)
114
3.
The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used
after verbs of declaring: to pronounce, to declare, to report.
The surgeon pronounced the wound to be a
slight one.
Врач сказал, что рана легкая.
She declared him to be the most disobedient
child in existence.
Она
заявила,
что
это
самый
непослушный ребенок на свете.
4.
The Objective-with-the-Infinitive, Construction is used
after verbs denoting wish and intention: want, to wish, to
desire, to mean, to intend, to ahoose (in the meaning of
'хотеть').
I want you to come and dine with me.
(Dickens)
5.
The Objective-with-the-InfinitiveConstruction is used
after verbs and expressions denoting feeling and emotion: to
like, to dislike, to love, to hate, cannot bear, etc.
I dislike you to talk like that.
6.
The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used
after verbs denoting order and permission: to order, to allow, to
suffer, to have etc.
Here we find the Objective with the Infinitive only if the object
is. expressed by a noun or pronoun denoting a lifeless thing or
when the infinitive is passive. This restriction does not apply to
the verbs to suffer and to have.
Mr. Merdle ordered his carriage to be ready
early in the morning. (Dickens)
Мистер Мердль приказал, чтобы экипаж
был готов рано утром.
115
She ... had never allowed the name of John
Gordon to pass her lips. (Trollope)
7.
The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used
after verbs denoting compulsion (in the meaning of
'заставить'), to cause (in the meaning of 'заставить',
'распорядиться'), to get (in the meaning of 'добиться'), to have
(in the rneaning of 'заставить; сказать чтобы').
Light steps in the gravel made him turn his
head. (London)
THE SUBJECTIVE INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTION
The Subjective Infinitive Construction (traditionally
called the Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction) is a
construction in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a
noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case.
The peculiarity of this, construction is that it does not serve as
one part of the sentence: one of its component parts has the
function of the subject, the other forms part of a compound
verbal predicate.
Edith is said to resemble me. (Dickens)
Говорят, что Эдит похожа на меня.
THE USE OF
CONSTRUCTION
THE
SUBJECTIVE
INFINITIVE
The Subjective Infinitive Construction is used with the
following groups of verbs in the Passive Voice:
1. With verbs denoting sense perception: to see, to hear etc.
Mr. Bob Sawyer was heard to laugh
heartily. (Dickens)
Слышно было, как весело смеется Боб
Сойер.
116
2. With verbs denoting mental activity: to think, to consider,
to know, to expect, to believe, to suppose.
He was thought to be honest and kindly.
(Dreiser) Его считали честным и добрым
человеком.
My father ... was considered by many to be
a great man. (Qow and D'Usseau)
Многие считали моего отца незаурядным
человеком.
3. With the verb to make.
Little Abraham was aroused... and made to
put on hfs clothes ... (Hardy)
Маленького Эбрахама разбудили и
заставили одеться.
4. With the verbs to say and to report.
The gods had given Irene dark-brown eyes
and golden hair, which is said to be the
mark of a weak character. (Galsworthy)
Боги наделили Ирэн темно-карими
глазами и золотистыми волосами, что,
как
говорят,
является
признаком
слабости характера.
The Subjective Infinitive Construction is used with the wordgroups to be likely, to be stifje, and to be certain.
But he is sure to marry her. (Hardy)
Но он бесспорно (несомненно) женится
на ней.
This fire is certain to produce a panic in the
morning. (Dreiser)
Этот пожар бесспорно (несомненно)
вызовет утром панику.
117
The Subjective Infinitive Construction is used, with the
following pairs of synonyms: to seem and to appear; to happen
and to chance (the latter is literary); to prove and to turn out.
They seemed to have quite forgotten him
already. (Hardy)
Они, казалось (по-видимому), уже
совершенно забыли его.
THE FOR-TO-INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTION
The for-to-Infinitive Construction is a construction in which
the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun or pronoun
preceded by the preposition for.
In translating this construction into Russian a subordinate
clause or an infinitive is used.
The construction can have different functions in the sentence.'
It can be:
1. Subject (often with the introductory it).
For me to ask would be treason, and for me
to be told would be treason. (Wilson)
2. Predicative.
That was for him to find out.
3. Complex object.
He waited for her to speak.
4. Attribute.
There is nobody here for him to play with.
5. Adverbial modifier:
a) of purpose
He stepped aside for me to pass.
118
b) of result
He spoke loud enough for you to hear.
THE GERUND
The gerund developed from the verbal noun, which in course
of time became verbalized preserving at the same time its
nominal character.
The gerund is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of
the verb, and coincides in form with Participle I.
As a natural result of its origin and development the gerund has
nominal and verbal properties. The nominal chjaracteristics of
the gerund are as follows:
1. The gerund can perform the function of subject, object and
predicative.
They say smoking leads to meditation.
(Collins) (SUBJECT)
2. The gerund can be preceded by a preposition. I am very,
very tired of rowing. (Hemingway)
3. Like a noun the gerund can be modified by a noun in the
possessive case or by a possessive pronoun.
The verbal characteristics of the gerund are the same as
those of the participle:
1. The gerund of transitive verbs can take a direct object.
I had how made a good progress in
understanding and speaking their language.
(Swift)
2. The gerund can be modified by an adverb. She burst out
crying bitterly. (Hardy)
3. The gerund has tense distinctions; the gerund of transitive
verbs has also voice distinctions. The forms of the gerund
in Modern English are as follows:
119
Indefinite Active writing
Indefinite Passive being written
Perfect Active having written
Perfect Passive having been written
There is no gerund in the Russian language and the English
«gerund» js rendered in Russian in different ways:
(a) by a noun.
Dancing had not begun yet... (Mansfield)
Танцы еще не начались.
(b) by an infinitive.
She had tea with Cipriano before leaving.
(Lawrence) Перед тем как уйти, она
выпила чаю с Чиприано. It is no good
hiding our heads under our wings.
(Galsworthy)
Бесполезно прятать голову под крыло.
(c) by деепричастие.
And without waiting for her answer he
turned and left us.(Du Manner)
И, не дожидаясь ее ответа, он повернулся
и вышел.
(d) by a subordinate clause.
Не
regretted
now
having
(Galsworthy)
Теперь он сожалел, что пришел.
come.
Predicative constructions with the gerund.
Like all the verbals the gerund can form predicative construc
tions, i. e. constructions in which the verbal element expressed
120
by the gerund is in predicate relation to the nominal element ex
pressed by a noun or pronoun.
I don't like your going off without any
money. (Maltz)
Мне не нравится, что вы уходите без
денег.
Here the gerund going off is in predicate relation to the
pronoun your, which denotes the doer of the action expressed
by the gerund.
The nominal element of the construction can be expressed in
different ways.
1. If it denotes a living being it may be expressed:
(a) by a noun in the genitive case or by a possessive
pronoun.
His further consideration of the point was
prevented by Richard's coming back to us
in an excited state. (Dickens)
Его дальнейшие размышления были
прерваны тем, что вернулся.
(b) by a noun in the common case.
I have a distinct recollection of Lady Chlltern always
getting the good conduct prize! (Wilde)
2. If the nominal element of the construction denotes a lifeless
thing, it is expressed by a noun in the common case (such
nouns, as a rule, are not used in the genitive case) or by a
possessive pronoun.
I said something about my clock being slow.
(Du Maurier)
Я сказала, что мои часы отстают.
121
3. The nominal element of the construction can also be
expressed by a pronoun which has no case distinctions,
such as all, this, that, both, each, something.
I insist on both of them coming in time.
Я требую, чтобы они оба пришли
вовремя.
A gerundial construction is nearly always rendered in Russian
by a subordinate clause, generally introduced by то, что;
тем, что; как, etc.
His being a foreigner, an ex-enemy was bad
enough. (Aldington)
To, что он был иностранец, бывший
неприятель, было уже плохо.
Я начал представлять себе, как через
день или два меня найдут мертвым под
каким-нибудь забором.
The use of the gerund.
In Modern English the gerund is widely used and often
competes with the Infinitive.
1. In the following cases only the gerund is used: to deny, to
enjoy, to fancy, to finish, to forgive, to mind, to postpone, to
put off, cannot help ,to go on ,to keep, to give up, to avoid.
He avoided looking at Savina. (Wilson)
Он избегал смотреть на Сабину.
... she burst out crying. (Collins)
Она расплакалась.
2. With the following verbs and verbal phrases used with
prepositions: to accuse of, to agree to, to approve of,
tocomplain of, to depend on,l to feel like, to persist in, to
prevent from, to succeed in, to suspect of, to thank for, to
122
think of, to give up the idea of, to look forward to, not to
like the idea of, to miss an (the) opportunity of and some
others.
They accuse me of having dealt with the
Germans. (Heym)
You did not approve of my playing at
roulette. (Eliot)
3. With the following predicative word-groups (with or
without preposition): to be aware of, to be guilty of, to be
sure of, tobefond of, to be indignant at.
1 am very fond of being looked at. (Wilde)
Я очень люблю, когда на меня смотрят.
You are really guilty of having connived
with a German officer to help his escape.
(Heyin)
The gerund and the infinitive.
With a number of verbs and word-groups both the gerund and
the infinitive may be used. The most important of them are: to
be ..afraid, to begin, to cease, to continue, can (cannot) afford,
to dread, to fear, to forget, to hate, to intend, to like (dislike), to
neglect, to prefer, to propose, to remember, to recollect, to
start, to stop.
The young man began turning over the
pages of a book.(Priestley)
At length she began to speak softly. (Eliot)
She continued Standing near the piano.
(Eliot)
She continued to look at him... (Dickens)
It is sometimes possible to find a reason- for the use of a given
form. With some verbs and word-groups, such as to be afraid,
123
to forget, to hate, to like (dislike), to prefer the infinitive is
mostly used with reference to a special occasion, the gerund
being more appropriate to a general statement.
The child was not afraid of remaining
alone, but he was afraid to remain alone on
such a stormy night.
Ребенок (вообще) не боялся оставаться
один, но он боялся остаться один в такую
бурную ночь.
I was always afraid of losing his goodwill.
(Llewellyn)
Я
всегда
боялся
потерять
его
расположение.
Gwendolen- answered rather pettishly, and
her mamma was afraid to say more. (Eliot)
Гвендолен
ответила
несколько
раздраженно, и ее мать побоялась
продолжать разговор.
The functions of the gerund in the sentence.
The gerund may be used in various syntactic functions. A
single gerund occurs but seldom; in most cases we find a
gerundial phrase or a gerundial construction.
1. The gerund as a subject.
Talking mends no holes, (proverb)
Разговоры не помогают в беде.
The gerund used as a subject may follow the predicate; in these
cases the sentence opens with the introductory it (which serves
as an introductory subject) or with the construction there is.
It's no use talking like that to me. (Shaw)
124
Note. –There is another view according to which it is the
subject and the rest of the sentence is the predicate.
2. The gerund as a predicative.
The only remedy' for such a headache as
mine is going to bed. (Collins)
Единственное
средство
от
такой
головной боли, как у меня, – эти лечь
спать.
3. The gerund as part of a compound verbal predicate.
(a) With verbs and verbal phrases denoting modality the
gerund forms part of a compound verbal modal
predicate.
We intend going to Switzerland, and
climbing Mount Blanc. (Ch. Bronte)
(b) With verbs denoting the beginning, the duration, or the
end of an action, the, gerund forms part of a compound
verbal aspect predicate.
She began sobbing and weeping. (Dickens)
4. The gerund as an object.
The gerund may be used as a direct object and as a
prepositional indirect object.
She enjoyed singing and playing to him.
(London) (DIRECT OBJECT»
Ей доставляло удовольствие петь и
играть для него.
The times were good for building ...
(Qalsworthy) (PREPOSITIONAL INDIRECT
OBJECT)
Время для постройки дома было самое
подходящее.
125
5. The gerund as an attribute.
In this function the gerund is always
preceded by a preposition.
Swithin protruded his pale round eyes with
the effort of hearing. (Galsworthy)
Не was born with the gift of winning
hearts. (Qaskell) Он родился с даром
покорять сердца.
6. The gerund as an adverbial modifier.
In this function the gerund is always preceded by a preposition.
It is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of time,
manner, attendant circumstances, cause, condition, purpose and
concession; the most common functions are those of adverbial
modifiers of time, manner, and attendant circumstances.
(a) As an adverbial modifier of time the gerund is preceded
by the preposition after, before, on (upon), in or at.
After leaving her umbrella in the hall, she
entered the living room. (Cronin)
(b)As an adverbial modifier of manner the gerund is used
with the prepositions by or in.
She startled her father by bursting into
tears. (Qaskell)
(c) As an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances the
gerund is preceded by the preposition without.
She was not brilliant, not active, but rather
peaceful and statuesque without knowing
it. (Dreiser).
(d)As an adverbial modifier of purpose, the gerund is
chiefly used with the preposition for.
... one side of the gallery was used for
dancing. (Eliot) ...
126
(e) As an adverbial modifier of condition the.gerund is
preceded by the preposition without.
He has no right to come bothering you and
papa without being invited. (Shaw)
(f) As an adverbial modifier of cause the gerund is used
with the prepositions for, for fear of, owing to.
I feel the better myself for having spent a
good deal of my time abroad. (Eliot)
(g) As an adverbial modifier of concession the gerund is
preceded by the preposition in spite of.
In spite of being busy, he did all he could to
help her.
The gerund and the participle.
In most cases the differentiation between the gerund
and the participle does not present any difficulty.
Unlike the participle the gerund may be preceded by a
preposition, it may be modified by a noun in the possessive
case or by a possessive pronoun; it can be used in the function
of a subject, object, and predicative. In the function of an
attribute and of an adverbial modifier both the gerund and the
participle may be used, but the gerund in these functions is
always preceded by a preposition.
There are cases, however, when the differentiation
between the gerund and the participle presents some difficulty;
for instance, it is not always easy to distinguish between a
gerund as part of a compound noun and a participle used as an
attribute to a noun. One should bear in mind that if we have a
gerund as part of a compound noun, the person or thing
denoted by the noun does not perform the action expressed by
the ing - form: e. g. a dancing-hall (a hall for dancing), a
127
cooking-stove (a stove for cooking), walking shoes, a writingtable, etc.
If we have a participle used as an attribute the person
denoted by the noun performs the action expressed by the ingform: e. g. a dancing girl (a girl who dances), a singing child,
etc.
However, there are cases which admit of two
interpretations; for example a sewing machine may be
understood in two ways: a machine for sewing and a machine
which sews; a hunting dog may be a dog for hunting and a dog
that hunts.
The gtrund and the verbal noun.
The gerund should not be confused with the verbal noun,
which has the same suffix -ing. The main points of difference
between the gerund and the verbal noun are as follows:
Gerund
1.
Like all the verbals the gerund has a double character –
nominal and verbal.
2.
The gerund is not used with an article.
3.
The gerund has no plural form.
4.
The gerund of a transitive verb takes a direct object.
He received more and more letters, so many
that he had given up reading them.
(Priestley)
5.
Thegerund may be modified by an adverb.
Drinking, even temperately, was a sin.
Verbal noun
1.
Тhe verbal noun has only a nom-inal character.
2.
Тhe verbal noun may be used with an article.
The making of-a new humanity cannot be
the privilege of a handful of bureaucrats.
(Fox)
128
3.
The verbal noun may be used in the plural.
Our likings are regulated
circumstances. (Ch. Bronte)
by
our
4.
A verbal noun cannot take a direct object; it takes a
prepositional object with the preposition of.
Meanwhile Gwendolen was rallying her
nerves to the reading of the paper. (Eliot)
5.
The verbal noun may be modified by an adjective.
He (Tom) took a good scolding about
clodding Sid. (Twain)
THE PARTIСIPLE
I.
The participle is a non-finite form of the verb which has
a verbal and an adjectival or an adverbial character.
There are two participles in English – Participle 1 and
Participle II, traditionally called the Present Participle and the
Past Participle.
1.
he participle has a verbal and an adjectival or
adverbial character:
a) Its adjectival or adverbial character is manifested in its
syntactic functions, those of attribute or adverbial
modifier.
I hated the hollow sound of the rain
pattering on the roof. (Du Maurier)
(ATTRIBUTE)
Having garaged his car, he remembered
that he had not lunched. (Galsworthy)
(ADVERBIAL MODIFIER)
129
b) The verbal characteristics of the participle is manifested
in its tense and voice distinctions. Also Participle I of a
transitive verb can take a direct object.
Opening the door, he went out on to the
terrace. (Galsworthy)
c) Participle I and Participle II can be modified by an
adverb.
Leaving the room hurriedly, he ran out.
(Thackeray)
The forms of the Participle:
Indefinite
Active
Indefinite
Passive
Perfect
Active
Perfect Passive
⇳
⇳
⇳
⇳
writing
being written
having
written
having
written
been
Participle I Indefinite Active and Passive usually denotes an
action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite
verb; depending on the tense-form of the finite verb it may
refer to the present, past, or future.
When reading The Pickwick Papers, one
can't help laughing.
When reading The Pickwick Papers, 1
couldn't help laughing.
When reading The Pickwick Papers, you
will roar with laughter.
He looked at the carpet while waiting for
her answer. (Galsworthy)
Being left alone, Pauline and I kept silence
for some time. (Ch. Bronte)
130
Sometimes Participle I Indefinite denotes an action referring to
no particular time.
The last turning had brought them into the
high-road leading to Bath. (Hardy)
Participle I Perfect Active and Passive denotes an action prior
to the action expressed by the finite verb.
Mr. Bumble, having spread a handkerchief
over his knees..., began to eat and drink.
(Dickens)
They were, indeed, old friends, having been
at school together. (Walpole)
It should be noted that a prior action is not always expressed by
Participle I Perfect: with some verbs of sense perception and
motion, such as to see, to hear, to come, to arrive, to seize, to
look, to turn and some others, Participle I Indefinite is used
even when priority is meant.
Hearing a footstep below he rose and went
to the top of the stairs. (Hardy)
Participle II has no tense distinctions; it has only one form
which can express both an action simultaneous with, and prior
to, the action expressed by the finite verb; the latter case is
more frequent.
His sister's eyes fixed on him with a certain
astonishment, obliged him at last to look at
Fleur. (Galsworthy)
In some cases Participle II denotes an action referring to no
particular time.
He is a man loved and admired by
everybody.
131
Participle I of transitive verbs has special forms to denote the
active and the passive voice.
When writing letters he does not like to be
disturbed. Being written in pencil the letter
was difficult to, make out.
Participle II of transitive verbs has a passive meaning, e. g. a
broken glass, a caged bird. Participle II of intransitive verbs
has no passive meaning; it is used only in compound tenseforms and has no independent function in the sentence unless it
belongs to a verb which denotes passing into a new state, e. g.
a withered flower, a faded leaf.
The functions of Participle I in the sentence.
Participle I may have different syntactic functions.
a) Participle I as an attribute.
Participle I Indefinite Active can be used as an attribute; in this
function it corresponds to the Russian действительное
причастие.
The fence surrounding the garden is
newly painted.
Забор, окружающий сад, недавно
покрашен.
We admired the stars twinkling in the sky.
Мы любовались звездами, мерцавшими
на небе.
In some cases Participle I in the function of an attribute is
rendered in Russian by a clause.
He came back and stood irresolute on the
steps leading down to the street. (Cusack)
Он вернулся и стоял в нерешительности на
лестнице, которая вела на улицу.
132
In the function of an attribute Participle I can be in pre-position
and in post-position, i. e. it can precede the noun it modifies
and follow it. Participle I in pre-position hardly ever has
accompanying words.
The gate-keeper surveyed the retreating
vehicle. (Hardy)
Привратник смотрел на удалявшийся
экипаж.
Participle I in post-position as a rule has one or several
accompanying words.
Through the massive sunlight illuminating the hall at
Robin Hill, the July sunlight at five o'clock fell just where the
broad staircase turned. (Galsworthy)
Сквозь
массивную
стеклянную
крышу,
освещавшую холл в Робин Хилле, лучи июльского солнца
в пять часов падали как раз на поворот широком
лестницы.
Participle I Indefinite Passive is very seldom used as an
attribute.
There was one line being laid out to within a few
blocks of his new home... which interested Him greatly.
(Dreiser)
Его
очень
интересовала
линия,
которую
прокладывали в нескольких кварталах от его нового дома.
2.
Participle I as an adverbial modifier;
All the forms of Participle I may be used as an adverbial
modifier. Participle I Indefinite expresses an action
simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb and
corresponds to the Russian деепричастие несовершенного
вида; Participle I Perfect expresses an action prior to the action
expressed by the finite verb and corresponds to the Russian
деепричастие совершенного вида. In some cases Participle I
133
in the function of an adverbial modifier is rendered in Russian
by an adverbial clause.
Participle I can be an adverbial modifier:
(a) of time.
Approaching Malta Street, Soho, Soames
thought with wonder of those years in
Brighton. (Galsworthy)
Приближаясь к Мальта Стрит в Сохо,
Соме с удивлением думал о годах,
проведенных в Брайтоне.
As has already been stated, with some verbs of sense
perception and motion, such as to see, to hear, to come, to
arrive, to enter, to seize, to look out, to turn and some others,
Participle I Indefinite is used even when priority is meant. In
Russian деепричастие совершенного вида is used in such
cases.
Anna... hearing his step, ran to the foot of
the stairs to meet him. (Eliot)
Анна..., услышав его шаги, побежала
вниз по лестнице встретить его.
If the action expressed by Participle I Indefinite Active is
simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb, the
conjunction when or while is often used.
...it was possible for Urquhart, when
making his toilet, to survey with pride an
original willow pattern tea service. (Cronin)
• Экхарт мог, пока он одевался, с
гордостью любоваться чайным сервизом
с настоящим китайским рисунком.
While waiting for the water to boil, he
held his face over the stove. (London)
Дожидаясь, когда закипит вода, он
наклонился над печкой.
134
Notе. –Participle I Indefinite of the verb to be is not used as an
adverbial modifier of time. Clauses of the type 'Когда
он был ребенком. . .,' 'Когда он рыл в Ленинграде...'
may be translated When a boy.. ., When he q<a$ a boy.
.., When in Leningrad..., When he was in Leningrad...
(b) of cause.
Being of a more slender figure than Mr.
Jarndyce, and having a richer complexion,
Mr. Skimpole looked younger. (Dickens)
(c ) of manner and attendant circumstances. In this
function
Participle I Indefinite is mostly used.
She balanced herself on the curbstone and
began to walk carefully, setting heel to toe,
heel to toe, and counting her steps.
(Heyrn)
(d) of comparison. In this function Participle I is introduced
by the conjunction as if or as though.
This was said as if thinking aloud.
(Qaskell)
Это было сказано так, как будто он
думал вслух.
3. Participle I as a predicative.
In this function Participle I is used but seldom; it is usually
rendered in Russian by an adjective.
The effect of her words was terrifying.
Впечатление, произведенное ее словами,
было (страшно. The whole damned day
had been humiliating. (Priestley)
135
Весь
этот
ужасный
унизительным.
день
был
4. Participle I as part of a complex object.
I saw that young man and his wife talking
to you on the stairs. (Galsworthy)
Я видел, как этот молодой человек и его
жена разговаривали с вами на лестнице.
5. Participle I as part of a compound verbal predicate.
Presently other footsteps were heard
crossing the room below. (Hardy)
Вскоре они услышали, что через комнату
внизу прошел еще кто-то.
6. Participial phrase as parenthesis.
Here we always find a participial phrase; a single participle is
not used in this function.
Generally speaking, I don't like boys.
(Dickens)
Вообще говоря, я не люблю мальчиков.
Judging by appearances, Mr. Bowmore
looked like a man prematurely wasted and
worn by the cares of a troubled life.
(Collins)
Судя по внешности, мистер Баумор был
человек преждевременно состарившийся
и измученный тяготами жизни.
The functions of Participle II in the sentence.
1. Participle II as an attribute.
When used as an attribute Participle II of transitive verbs
corresponds to the Russian страдательное причастие or
136
действительное причастие of some verbs ending in -ся, e. g.
a broken chair (сломанный стул), a broken cup (разбитая
чашка), 'a newspaper published in Moscow (газета,
издаваемая в Москве), the problem discussed at the meeting
(вопрос, обсуждавшийся на собрании).
Participle II, as well as Participle I, can be used in pre-posi-tion
(without any accompanying words) and in post-position (with
one or more accompanying words).
He answered through the locked door.
(Wells)
Он ответил сквозь закрытую дверь.
Participle II of intransitive verbs which denote passing into a
new state, corresponds to the Russian действительное
причастие or to an adjective. However, only in a few cases
Participle II of an intransitive verb may be used attributively,
mostly. Participle II of the verbs to fade, to wither, to retire, to
fall, to vanish, e. g. faded leaves (увядшие листья), a withered
flower (засохший цветок), a retired colonel (отставной
полковник), a fallen star (упавшая звезда), the vanished
jewels (пропавшие драгоценности).
An attribute expressed by Participle II may be detached; in this
case it often has an additional meaning of an adverbial
modifier:
The housekeeper had come out of her room,
attracted by the violent ringing of the
bell. (Conan Doyle)
Экономка вышла из своей комнаты,
привлеченная
неистовым
звоном
колокольчика.
Accompanied by his father and Steger, he
(Cowperwood) ascended to his new room.
(Dreiser)
2. Participle II as an adverbial modifier.
137
In this function Participle II is preceded by the conjunctions
when, while, if, as if, as though, though, etc. It is generally
rendered in Russian by an adverbial clause.
Participle II can be an adverbial modifier:
(a) of time.
When questioned Annie had implied
vaguely... that she was anxious about her
brother-in-law. (Cronin)
Когда Энни стали расспрашивать, она
дала понять..., что беспокоится о своем
шурине.
(b) of condition.
It was a dreadful thing that he now
proposed, a breach of the law which, if
discovered, would bring them into the
police court. (Cronin)
To, что он предлагал, было ужасно: это
было нарушение закона, и если бы оно
открылось, их отдали бы под суд.
(c) of comparison.
As if torn with inner conflict and indecision,
he cried. (Galsworthy)
Он плакал, словно его мучили
внутренняя борьба и сомнения.
Mr. Kantwise... shook his head as though
lost in wonder and admiration. (Trollope)
Мистер Кэнтуайз ... покачал головой,
словно
переполненный
чувством
удивления и восхищения.
(d) of concession.
138
... her spirit, though crushed, was not
broken. (A. Bronte)
... хотя она и. была подавлена, она не
была сломлена.
Note. – Other grammarians' view of the analysis of such word
groups as when questioned..., if discovered..., as if
torn..., though crushed... is different. They consider
such word-groups to be elliptical clauses and not
participial phrases.
3.
Participle II as a predicative.
In spite of i himself, Val was impressed.
(Galsworthy)
На Вэла это произвело впечатление,
помимо его воли.
4.
Participle II as part of a complex object.
She has found me unaltered; but I have
found her changed. (Collins)
Она нашла, что я ничуть не переменился,
а я нашел, что она изменилась.
Predicative constructions with the participle.
In Modern English we find the following predicative
constructions with the participle:
the Objective Participial Construction;
the Subjective Participial Construction;
the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction,
the Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction.
The Objective Participial Construction.
The Objective Participial Construction is a construction in
which the participle is in predicate relation to a noun in the
common case orja pronoun in the objective case.
139
In the next berth she could hear her
stepmother breathing heavily. (Hardy)
Ей было слышно, как на соседней койке
тяжело дышит ее мачеха.
The participle breathing is in predicate relation to the noun
stepmother, which denotes the doer of the action expressed by
the participle.
In the Objective Participial Construction Participle I. Indefinite
Active or Participle II is used. In the sentence this construction
has the function of a complex object. It usually corresponds to
a subordinate object clause in Russian.
The Objective Participial Construction may be found:
(a) after verbs denoting sense perception, such as to see, to
hear, to feel, to find, etc.
Then he looked out of the window and saw
clouds gathering.
(b) after some verbs of mental activity, such as to consider,
to understand.
I consider myself engaged to Herr Klesmer.
(Eliot)
Я считаю себя помолвленной с
господином Клесмером.
(c) after verbs denoting wish, such as to want, to wish, to de
sire. In this case only Participle II is used.
The governor wants it done quick. (Bennett)
Отец хочет, чтобы это было сделано
быстро.
(d) after the verbs to have and to get; after these verbs only
Participle II is used.
In this case the Objective Participial Construction shows that
the action expressed by the participle is performed at the
140
request of the person denoted by the subject of the sentence.
Thus / had the piano tuned means 'I made someone tune the
piano'.
I had my coat altered.
Я переделала пальто (т. е. поручила
кому-то переделать его).
In interrogative and negative sentences the auxiliary verb to do
is used:
Why don't you have your hair waved? (Du
Manner)
Почему вы не завьетесь (не сделаете
завивку)?
Occasionally the meaning of the construction' is
different: it may show that the person denoted by the subject
of the sentence experiences the action expressed by the
participle.
The wounded man had his leg amputated.
Раненому ампутировали ногу.
The Subjective Participial Construction.
The Subjective Participial Construction is a construction
in which the participle (mostly Participle I) is in predicate
relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the
nominative case, which is the subject of the sentence.
In rendering this construction in Russian a complex
sentence is generally used; the principal clause is of the type
which in Russian syntax is called 'indefinite personal'
(неопределенно-личное предложение),
The peculiarity of this construction is that it does not serve
as one part of the sentence: one of its component parts has the
function' of the subject, the other forms part of a compound
verbal predicate.
141
They were heard talking together... (Collins)
This construction is chiefly used after verbs of sense
perception.
The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction.
The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction is a
construction in which the participle stands in predicate relation
to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative
case; the noun or pronoun is not the subject of the sentence.
The -door and window of the vacant room being open, we
looked in. (Dickens)
In the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction
Participle I (in all its forms) or Participle II is used. This
construction is generally rendered in Russian by means of an
adverbial clause. It is used in the function of an adverbial
modifier. It can be an adverbial modifier:
(a) of time.
The lamp having been lit, Mrs. Macallan
produced her son's letter. (Collins)
Когда зажгли лампу, миссис Макаллан
достала письмо от сына.
This duty completed, he had three months'
leave. (Hardy)
Когда эта работа была закончена, он
получил трехмесячный отпуск.
(b) of cause.
It being now pretty late, we took our
candles and went upstairs. (Dickens)
Так как было довольно поздно, мы взяли
свечи и пошли наверх.
142
A knock had come to the door, and there
being nobody else to answer it, Clare went
out. (Hardy)
(c)of attendant circumstances. In this function the Nomina
tive Absolute Participial Construction is mostly
placed'at the end of the sentence. In rendering it in
Russian a coordinate clause or деепричастный оборот
is used.
He turned and went, we, as, before,
following him. (Jerome)
(d) of condition. In this function the Nominative Absolute
Par ticipial Construction occurs but seldom and is
almost exclusively used with the participles permitting
and failing.
Weather (time, circumstances) permitting,
we shall start tomorrow.
The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction very often
occurs in fiction and scientific literature; the use of this
construction in colloquial English is rare.
The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction.
The Absolute Participial Construction may be introduced by
the preposition with and is then called the Prepositional
Absolute Participial Construction. It is in most cases used in
the function of an adverbial modifier of attendant
circumstances.
This construction is rendered in Russian by a coordinate clause
or деепричастный оборот.
They were walking on again, with Hugh
calmly drawing at his pipe. (Lindsay)
Absolute constructions without a participle.
143
There are two types of absolute constructions in which we
find no participle. The second element of the construction is an
adjective, a prepositional phrase, or an adverb.
1. The Nominative Absolute Construction. It is used in
the function of an adverbial modifier of time or attendant
circum stances. In the function of an adverbial modifier of
time this con struction is rendered in Russian by an adverbial
clause.
Breakfast over, he went to his counting
house. (Ch. Bronte)
Когда кончили завтракать, он. пошел в
свою контору.
2. The Prepositional Absolute Construction. It is mostly
used in the function of an adverbial modifier of attendant
circum stances. In rendering this construction in Russian a
coordinate clause or деепричастный оборот is used.
I found him ready, and waiting for me, with
his stick in his hand. (Collins)
The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction and the
Nominative Absolute Construction are separated from the rest
of the sentence by a comma or a semicolon.
Grandcourt... rose and strolled out on the
lawn, all the dogs following him. (Eliot)
Prepositional Absolute Constructions are usually separated
from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
It was a balmy, radiant day, with the trees and grass shining
exceedingly green after the rain of the night before.
Practical Exercises
144
Exercise 1. Insert the bare Infinitive or the to-Infinitive.
1. Mrs. Cool wants her son (to look after) his younger sister.
She is going (to be busy) till Friday.
2. Who made you (to stay) here and not ( to go away)?
3. I’rather (to tell) her it.
4. Why not ( to join) the Locks and (go) to the shooting lodge
in Scotland.
5. – Was she seen ( to speak) to the editor? – Yes, my
assistant saw her (to do) it.
6. I heard him ( to pray) when everybody went to bed.
7. Susan would sooner ( to phone) your Grandma.
8. Don’t let your children ( to swim) in the river when they
are alone.
9. He allowed his fancy (to drift) away.
10. If you want to know, it does make me (to feel) happier.
Exercise 2.
Find the Infinitive, state the function of
the Infinitive. Translate the sentences.
Model: My habit is to get up early. (to get up-predicative). У
меня привычка – рано вставать.
1. To cry is useless.
2. Their purpose was to find a hotel and stay here.
3. It soon began to snow heavily.
4. I am glad to have met you.
5. To drive fast in such weather is pretty dangerous.
6. Her habit was to put 5 lumps of sugar in her tea.
7. It’s not a question to be discussed.
8. I was anxious to get rid of them.
145
Exercise 3.
Paraphrase the sentences, using the
Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction. Translate the
sentences.
Model: I think that this film is for children. I think this film to
be for children. Я думаю, что этот фильм для детей.
1. We heard that the actor was singing.
2. I find that her nephew looks much younger.
3. I could not see the men who were playing tennis.
4. The boys reported that the translation had been completed.
5. The nation believed that the king would provide leadership.
6. He was frightened at a curious sensation that passed
through his head.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Exercise 4.
Paraphrase the sentences, using the
Subjective- with the-Infinitive construction.
They report that the police caught the criminal.
She says that Wlie is in prison.
We know that this team has lost their matches.
Everyone heard that he shouted at his wife.
They discovered that the bicycle had been stolen.
They reported that the Prime Minister had left for the UN
session.
Exercise 5.
Form the sentences of the for-toInfinitive construction.
Model: easy, it, me, to answer, that, was, for, guestion. It was
easy for me to answer that guestion .
1) useless, me, to, interfere, it, for, is.
2) was, house, the, easy, to find, us, for.
3) is, too, that, for, difficult, me, to decide.
4) a ladder, is, safer, you, for, it, to use.
5) was, no cnance, her, for, to find, a job, there.
6) He, enough, to hate, for, me, him, does.
146
Exercise 6. Translate the sentences in English.
1. Жить – значит надеяться.
2. Мое единственное желание – чтобы меня оставили в
покое.
3. Он терпеть не может, когда его спрашивают об этом
приключении.
4. Кажется, тебя ищет босс.
5. Твои родители, по-видимому, приедут.
6. Слышали, что ты сделал выгодную покупку.
7. Известно, что он талантливый актер.
8. Оказалось у него масса друзей.
9. Вряд ли он изменится.
10. Я не понимаю, как проанализировать это предложение.
11. Когда ты начнешь думать о будущем?
12.
Много видеть – значит много знать.
Exercise 7. Complete the sentences using the approapriate
preposition + gerund.
1. Do you think he‘s good …?
2. She‘s fond of…
3. Are you intrested …?
4. She is not used ….
5. Why should you be so anxious …?
6. Who will be responsible …?
Exercise 8. State the syntactical function of the gerund.
1. I guessed what he had intended asking me.
2. The only way to do it guickly is doing it at her.
3. This side of the house was used for dancing.
4. In spite of being a verybright pupil this time he could
not cope with the task.
5. I like hearing that word.
6. The conference closed after hearing and discussing
about eighty reports.
147
7. He had spent a whole night in nothing the effect of the
moon light on the silver image of Endimion.
8. She kept on thinking about it.
9. And what I don’t know about pearls isn’t worth
knowing.
10. Waiting fort he proffessor was a lame excuse for doing
nothing.
Exercise 8.Complete the sentences using the gerund.
1. Your hair needs(cut)/
2. The boy deserves (praise).
3. The room needs (scrub).
4. Her suggestion requires (discuss)at the meeting.
Exercise 9. Point out a gerundial construction and state its
syntactical function.
1. Tha t would prevent people’s noticing.
2. His mother set her heart on his standing forParliament.
3. The play was not so bad but I can’t imagine anyone
wanting to see it three times.
4. I remember you coming and taking her out once.
5. I don’t like the idea of us starting so early.
6. I have a mother’s feelings and I can never look at a
confirmed bachelor without the tears coming into my
eyes.
Exercise 10. Translate the sentences using the gerund and
gerundial constructions.
1. Похоже, что будет дождь.
2. Мы с нетерпением ждем лето.
3. Он подумывает о женитьбе.
4. Она жалуется, что ее оставляют одну.
5. Я хочу предотвратить драку.
6. Он любит смотреть спортивные передачи.
7. Я мечтаю, что он станет знаменитым писателем.
148
8. Она была недовольна тем, что мы вернулись очень
поздно.
9. Что толку, что он ходит в институт.
10. Ты удивлена, что я разговариваю с тобой таким
тоном?
Exercise 11. Define the form and the syntactic function of
Participle I.
1. I felt suddenly small standing beside those immense
walls of stone.
2. My father and I spent an hour or so taking our materials
to that room.
3. He stood for a while holding my hands.
4. Being Evie she made our problems hers and in the
midst of all her happiness she did not forget us.
5. I was very pensive considering it.
6. He listened to me almost like a child hanging on my
words.
7. He leaned across the table twisting a bit of bread off the
roll on his plate.
8. «This is a day when I meet a lot of friends I knew
formerly» said Mrs Oliver, going into the house and
being led into a small sitting-room.
9. They are in love with each other and wish to marry.
Yes, but there are difficulties being put in their way.
10. He thought the woman was satisfied with life as she had
lived it, enjoying the pleasures and suffering the
sorrows life brings. 11. They didn't know a good many
families, of course, being the sort of class they were.
12. She spent a good deal of her time on clothes not ever
being sure where true elegance lay.
13. Being an orphan at six, he was brought up by a distant
relative.
14. Having admitted she loved him she was frightened.
15. Generally speaking, the problem is not so easy as it
seems to be.
149
Exercise 12. State the function of Participle II.
1. He answered through the looked door.
2. The general entered the room accompanied by six
senior officers.
3. I hate people who cry over spilt milk.
4. Though astonished by her interest in the details oft he
accident I went on with my story.
5. As it torn with inner conflict and indecision, he cried.
Exercise 13. Translate what is given in brackets using an
appropriate form of Participle I.
1. James hesitated for a moment (не понимая, что
происходит).
2. (Рассказав все, что он знал) the witness left the box.
3. We stood on the bridge in the fog (ожидая такси).
4. We came back tired and hungry (прождав целый день
поезд).
5. A new road will soon be built (Кoторая соединит
завод с вокзалом).
6. decided to go to bed earlier (будучи очень усталой).
Exercise14. Pick out the Objective Participial Instruction.
Comment upon its structure.
1.
He saw the car standing before the door.
2.
There was a girl who said at a party that she had ice
seen a murder committed.
3.
She felt her tears rising. 4. He watched the men
unloading their waggons.
5.
I watched the luggage registered.
6.
I could almost hear his voice shouting.
7.
I felt myself touched on c arm.
8.
«We could have the luggage sent on», said Evie,
practical as usual.
9.
I was thankful for lady Farringdon's parties for which I
had several dresses made.
150
10.
I believe he will want the picture done with the greatest
speed.
11.
I must get it arranged.
12.
I heard footsteps and turning sharply saw Bertrand comtowards us.
13.
The young man I his head buried in his hands so that he
did not hear the flutter of the bird's wings and when he looked
up found the beautiful sapphire lying on the withered violets.
14.
Only the little boy did not run for his eyes re so full of
tears that he did not see the Giant comming.
15.
When the people were going to market at twelve o'clock
they found the Giant playing with the chilldren in his beautiful
garden.
Exercise 15. Substitute the Objective Participial Construction
for the subordinate clause.
1. He glanced back and saw that Bosinney following him
slowly.
2. He felt his heart was beating hard.
3. I had seen him last September when he was coming
across the square.
4. They found her when she was lying dead on the floor of
her dressing-room.
5. June watched how she removed with cold water the
traces of emotions.
6. I felt that his eyes watched me as I turned away and
went upstairs.
Exercise 16. Pick out Participial Constructions. Comment on
their structure. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. She was found lying in the street.
2. The two lien were heard descending.
3. A man could be seen advancing from the outskirts
towards them.
4. The musicians were heard tuning up.
151
5. And in the slight pause young Nickolas was heard
saying gently that Violet was taking lessons in pastel.
6. The children were seen playing in the garden.
7. She could feel her hands trembling.
8. I looked up and saw him watching my Election in the
looking-glass.
9. She could hear her stepmother breathing heavily.
10. The wounded man had his leg amputated.
Exercise 17. Point out the Nominative Absolute Participial
Construction. Define the function it expresses. Translate
the sentences into Russian.
1.
The duty performed he came home.
2.
And people would pass the house, going off in
wagonettes and coaches, as jolly and merry as could be, the sun
shining out.
3.
He began the ascent, Basil Hallward following close
behind.
4.
The carriage stopped, the horse's head hanging in the
rain.
5.
We passed a long column of loaded mules, the drivers
walking along beside the mules.
6.
He stared at her, his smile disappearing.
7.
Dorian bowed to him shyly, a flush of pleasure stealing
into cheek.
8.
We saw three cars looking very small, the dust rising
from the week.
9.
Well, all things considered, she had got through this
ordeal y well.
10.
I watched him, his brush hovering over t small palette.
Exercise 18. Point out the Prepositional Absolute Participial
Construction. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1.
He was slowly walking in the direction of the lake, with
his dog following him.
2.
She was sitting kill, with her arms crossed on the breast.
152
3.
He wore a thick brown sweater and a brown cap, with
pulled down low over his eyes.
4.
The day was glorious, with a fresh wind blowing from
the sea.
5.
She looked very fresh and attractive that morning, hair
beautifully done in a new style.
6.
She crept into the room on tiptoes, with her heart
beating at usual speed.
7.
The girl entered the room, eyes fixed on George.
8.
The child ran to with her arms outstretched.
9.
He sat there along with his head drooping.
153
ЛИТЕРАТУРА:
1.Каушанская В.Л. Грамматика английского языка [Текст]:
Пособие для студентов пед. ин-тов. Под ред. Проф. Б.А.
Ильиша. Второе изд., переработанное /В.Л. Каушанская.. –
Л: Просвещение, 1963. - 319 с.
2.Каушанская В.Л. Сборник упражнений по грамматике
английского языка [Текст]: пособие для студентов пед. интов. Изд. 3-е. / В.Л. Каушанская. - Л.: Просвещение, 1973.
- 208 с.
3.Кобрина И.П.
Грамматика английского языка:
Морфология. Синтаксис [Текст]:
учебное пособие для
студентов пед.
Институтов и университетов. Серия:
изучаем иностранные языки / И.П. Кобрина. - CПб.:
«Издательство Союз», «Лениздат». – 2000. – 496 с.
4.Корнеева, Е.А., Практическая грамматика английского
языка: Инфинитив, причастие I, причастие II, герундий
[Текст] / Е.А. Корнеева.– СПб: Союз, 2004. – 368 с. – ISBN
– 5-94033-146-7.
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Учебное издание
Наталья Григорьевна Виноградова
Елена Владимировна Панькина
Практическая грамматика английского языка:
Методическое пособие для бакалавров
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