английский язык - Санкт-Петербургский государственный

Федеральное агентство по образованию
Государственное образовательное учреждение
высшего профессионального образования
«САНКТ-ПЕТЕРБУРГСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ
ТЕХНОЛОГИИ И ДИЗАЙНА»
Кафедра иностранных языков
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ И КОНТРОЛЬНЫЕ ЗАДАНИЯ
ДЛЯ СУДЕНТОВ-ЗАОЧНИКОВ
Составитель
А. А. Вербин
Санкт-Петербург
2007
3
Рекомендовано на
заседании кафедры
Протокол № 1
от 31.08.2007
Рецензент И. Ф. Григоренко
Цель данных методических указаний – объяснить студентам техническую
сторону выполнения контрольных работ и изложить некоторые общие
рекомендации по изучению программного материала курса английского
языка в Санкт-Петербургском государственном университете технологии
и дизайна.
Оригинал подготовлен составителем и печатается в авторской редакции.
Подписано в печать 19.11.07. Формат 60х84/16. Усл. печ. 3.6
Печать трафаретная.
Тираж 250 экз. Заказ
Отпечатано в типографии СПГУТД
191028, Санкт-Петербург, Моховая, 26
4
ВВЕДЕНИЕ
Прежде чем приступать к выполнению первой контрольной работы
внимательно изучите методические указания, которые предшествуют
контрольным работам. Прежде всего, вы должны уяснить себе
техническую сторону выполнения конторольной работы, т.е. знать, как ее
оформить, поскольку неправильное выполнение работы сведет весь ваш
труд к нулю.
Следующий шаг в вашей работе – это подбор подходящего
учебника. Существует много учебников, которые могут быть
использованы для изучения английского языка в объеме, который
предусмотрен учебной программой Петербургского университета
технологии и дизайна. На первой установочной лекции вы получите
необходимые рекомендации по этому поводу. Здесь же можно сказать,
что, в принципе, может быть использован любой учебник английского
языка для неязыковых вузов. Правда, следует иметь в виду, что в
учебниках грамматический материал «рассыпан» по всему учебнику, и
поиски необходимых вам тем могут занять достаточно много времени.
Поэтому кроме учебника английского языка рекомендуется приобрести
или взять в библиотеке какую-нибудь грамматику английского языка, так
как в них грамматические темы изложены систематически, и их легко
отыскать по оглавлению.
Приступая к выполнению контрольной работы, необходимо
выписать перечень грамматических тем, которые предлагаются в
контрольной работе, найти их в грамматике и изучит их. После этого
внимательно просмотреть раздел контрольного задания, который
называется «образец выполнения» и проверить себя, т.е. выяснить
совпадает ли образец выполнения контрольного задания с тем, как вы
представляете себе выполнение данных заданий. И только когда вы
убедитесь, что ваше понимание того или иного задание совпадает с
«образцом выполнения», можно приступать к выполнению самого
контрольного задания.
ВЫПОЛНЕНИЕ И ОФОРОРМЛЕНИЕ
КОНТРОЛЬНЫХ РАБОТ
Количество контрольных заданий, выполняемых вами на каждом
курсе, устанавливается учебным планом института. Точный график
выполнения контрольных работ определяют соответствующий деканат и
методическая группа университета
Каждое контрольное задание в данном пособии предлагается в пяти
вариантах. Вы должны выполнить один из пяти вариантов в соответствии с
последними цифрами студенческого шифра: студенты, шифр которых
оканчивается на 1 или 6, выполняют вариант №1; на 2 или 7 -- № 2; на 3
или 8 -- № 3; на 4 или 9 -- № 4; на 5 или 0 — №5.
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Выполнять письменные контрольные работы вы должны в
отдельной тетради. Это связано с тем, что проверенная контрольная работа
и получившая оценку «допустить к зачету» не высылается студенту, а
остается на кафедре. Контрольная работа, получившая оценку «для
исправления», высылается студенту для работы над ошибками и
исправления. Если, например, в одной тетради будут выполнены две
контрольные работы, причем одна из них получит оценку «для
исправления», то тетрадь не будет выслана студенту, поскольку в ней
имеется проверенная и зачтенная работа.
На обложке тетради напишите свою фамилию, номер контрольной
работы и название учебника, по которому вы занимаетесь.
Контрольные работы должны выполняться аккуратно, четким
почерком. При выполнении контрольной работы оставляйте в тетради
широкие поля для замечаний, объяснений и методических указаний
рецензента.
Материал контрольной работы следует располагать в тетради по
следующему образцу:
Левая страница
Поля Английский текст
Правая страница
Русский текст
Поля
Поля
.
Контрольные
работы
должны
выполняться
в
той
последовательности,
в которой они даны в настоящем пособии.
Выполненные контрольные работы направляйте для проверки и
рецензирования в институт в установленные сроки.
Если контрольная работа выполнена без соблюдения сроков,
указаний или не полностью, она не принимается для проверки.
ИСПРАВЛЕНИЕ РАБОТЫ НА ОСНОВЕ РЕЦЕНЗИЙ
Получив от рецензента проверенные контрольные работы,
внимательно прочитайте рецензию, ознакомьтесь с замечаниями
рецензента и проанализируйте отмеченные в работе ошибки.
Руководствуясь указаниями рецензента, проработайте еще раз
необходимый учебный материал. Все предложения, в которых были
обнаружены ошибки или неточности перевода, перепишите их начисто в
исправленном виде в конце данной контрольной работы. Исправив, таким
образом, все ошибки и выполнив все указания рецензента, вы можете
приступить к изучению материала очередного контрольного задания и его
выполнению.
Проверенные и допущенные к зачету контрольные работы являются
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учебными документами и остаются на кафедре иностранных языков, а
студент получает карточку рецензента, которую необходимо сохранять и
предъявлять как документ, свидетельствующий о допуске студента к
зачету или экзамену. Помните о том, что во время зачета или экзамена
производится проверка усвоения материала, вошедшего в контрольные
работы.
ПИСЬМЕННЫЕ КОНСУЛЬТАЦИИ
Можно сообщить своему рецензенту обо всех затруднениях,
возникающих у вас при самостоятельном изучении английского языка,
какие предложения в тексте вызывают затруднения при переводе, какой
раздел грамматики вам непонятен,
какие правила, пояснения,
формулировки неясны, какие упражнения вам трудны и что именно в них
представляется затруднительным. При этом укажите название учебника
или учебного пособия, по которому вы занимаетесь, издательство, год
издания, страницу учебника, номер упражнения.
САМОСТОЯТЕЛЬНОЕ ЧТЕНИЕ
Кроме выполнения контрольных заданий в программу курса
английского языка входит раздел «самостоятельное чтение». Это
предполагает, что кроме знания текста своего варианта контрольной
работы студент должен также уметь перевести тексты остальных
вариантов данного контрольного задания. Проверка знания этих текстов
осуществляется на занятиях зачетной и экзаменационных сессий.
ПОДГОТОВКА К ЗАЧЕТАМ И ЭКЗАМЕНАМ
Во время подготовки к зачетам или экзаменам рекомендуется: 1)
повторно проработать наиболее трудные тексты из учебника; 2)
просмотреть материал выполненных контрольных работ; 3) выполнить
отдельные упражнения из учебника для самопроверки; 4) просмотреть
задания других вариантов тех же контрольных заданий.
КОНТРОЛЬНЫЕ ЗАДАНИЯ
КОНТРОЛЬНОЕ ЗАДАНИЕ № 1
Для того чтобы правильно выполнить задание № 1, необходимо
усвоить
следующие
разделы
курса
английского
языка
по
рекомендованному учебнику.
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1. Имя существительное. Множественное число. Артикли как
показатели имени существительного и предлоги. Выражения падежных
отношений в английском языке с помощью предлогов и окончания –‘s.
Существительное в функции определения и его перевод на русский язык.
2. Имя прилагательное. Степени сравнения имен прилагательных.
Конструкции типа the more ... the less.
3. Числительные.
4.Местоимения: личные, притяжательные, вопросительные,
указательные, неопределенные и отрицательные.
5. Форма настоящего (Present), прошедшего (Past) и будущего
(Future) времени группы Indefinite действительного залога изъявительного
наклонения. Спряжение глаголов to be, to have в Present, Past и Future
Indefinite. Повелительное наклонение и его отрицательная форма.
6. Простое распространенное предложение: прямой порядок слов
повествовательного и побудительного предложений в утвердительной и
отрицательной формах; порядок слов вопросительного предложения.
Оборот there is (are).
7. Основные случаи словообразования.
ЗАДАНИЕ № 1
ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ
1. Перепишите следующие предложения. Определите по грамматическим
признакам, какой частью речи являются слова с окончанием -s и какую
функцию это окончание выполняет:
а) показатель 3-го лица единственного числа в Present Indefinitite;
б) показатель множественного числа имени существительного;
в) показатель притяжательного падежа имени существительного.
Переведите предложения на русский язык:
1) Professor Petrov lectures at our University and his lectures are very popular
with the students.
Профессор Петров читает лекции в нашем университете, а его лекции
очень популярны у студентов.
Первое слово lectures — 3 лицо ед.чила от глагола to lecture, второе
lectures -- множественное число от имени существительного a lecture.
2. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их, обращая
внимание на особенности перевода на русский язык определений,
выраженных именем существительным.
1) I have little leisure time.
У меня мало свободного времени.
2) Ozone hole extension is a serious problem.
Расширение озоновой дыры – серьезная проблема.
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3. Перепишите и переведите следующие предложения, содержащие разные
формы сравнения.
1) St.Paul’s Cathedral is one of the most famous buildings in England.
Собор св. Павла – один из самых знаменитых зданий в Англии.
2) This book is more interesting than that one.
Эта книга более интересна, чем та.
3) The longer is the night, the shorter is the day.
Чем длиннее ночь, тем короче день.
4. Перепишите и переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод
неопределенных и отрицательных местоимений.
1) At some of the London Underground stations there are lifts.
На некоторых станциях метро в Лондоне имеются лифты.
2) Any bus will take you there.
Любой автобус довезет вас туда.
3) No sight in London is as popular as the Big Ben.
Никакая достопримечательность в Лондоне не является такой популярной
как Биг Бен.
5. Перепишите и переведите следующие предложения, определяя видовременную форму глаголов.
1) He will leave for London in a few days.
Он поедет в Лондон через несколько дней.
Will leave – Future Indefinite Active от глагола to leave
ВАРИАНТ I
I. Перепишите следующие предложения. Определите по
грамматическим признакам, какой частью речи являются слова,
оформленные окончанием –s, и какую функцию это окончание выполняет,
т.е. служит ли оно:
а) показателем 3-го лица единственного числа глагола в Present
Indefinite; б) признаком множественного числа имени существительного;
в) показателем притяжательного падежа имени существительного.
Переведите предложения на русский язык.
I. This Guide to London places great emphasis on its shopping areas.
2. Most of London's places of interest are in the West End.
3. Hyde Park covers 360 acres.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их, обращая
внимание на особенности перевода на русский язык определений,
выраженных именем существительным.
1. The bus stop is not far from here.
2. Several Oxford University physicists work at this problem.
3. There are only daylight lamps in this room.
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III. Перепишите следующие предложения, содержащие разные
формы сравнения, и переведите их на русский язык.
1. One of the most famous buildings in England is St. Paul's
Cathedral.
2. This room is smaller than that one.
3. The shorter is the night, the longer is the day.
IV. Перепишите и письменно переведите предложения на русский
язык, обращая внимание на перевод неопределенных и отрицательных
местоимений.
1. At some of the London Underground stations there are no escalators.
2. Any student of our group can speak on the history of London.
3. No park in London is as popular as Hyde Park.
V. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в них видовременные формы глаголов и укажите их инфинитив; переведите
предложения на русский язык.
1. This student first came to Moscow in 1985.
2. The Port of London is to the east of the City.
3. In a few days she will leave for New York.
VI. Устно переведите весь текст, а абзацы 2 и 3 перепишите и
переведите письменно.
A History of London
1.London is an extremely old city, it is more than twenty centuries old.
When the Romans came to Britain in the first century of our era London was a
small village. They built many roads and buildings and even now you can see
the Roman Wall that the Romans built in the second century. Soon London
became a Roman stronghold and а trading centre. Later it became the largest
city of England.
2.In the middle ages, London was a very rich and independent city, even
with its own army. Its citizens supported the king of England or not according
to their own decision. When the king came from Westminster where he
generally lived to the city of London the Lord Mayor of London met him at the
gates and presented him with the keys of the city. This ceremony still takes
place when the present monarch of Britain passes through the City on official
business, for example opening of Parliament.
3.The City of London nowadays contains mostly financial institutions,
business and newspaper offices, banks etc. The City of London became the heart
of the business life of Great Britain and plays an important part in the financial
and economic life of the world. Very few people live there, but a lot of men and
women come every morning to their work places there. Most of them work for
the financial sector of the British economy.
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ВАРИАНТ 2
1. Перепишите следующие предложения. Определите по
грамматическим признакам, какой частью речи являются слова,
оформленные окончанием -s, и какую функцию это окончание выполняет,
т.е. служит ли оно:
а) показателем 3-го лица единственного числа глагола в Present
Indefinite; б) признаком множественного числа имени существительного;
в) показателем притяжательного падежа имени существительного.
Переведите предложения на русский язык.
I.Britain exports a great variety of goods.
2.Britain’s exports fell in recent years.
3.The inhabitants of York are fond of their city.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их, обращая
внимание на особенности перевода на русский язык определений,
выраженных именем существительным.
1. The students of our group will go to the University History Museum
tomorrow.
2. This is the building of the Oxford City Hall.
3. Teams of figure skaters and ice-hockey players undergo intensive
training here.
III. Перепишите следующие предложения, содержащие разные
формы сравнения, и переведите их на русский язык.
1.Hyde Park is one of the most favourite parks of the Londoners.
2. The more I thought of that plan, the less I liked it.
3. His translation is better than mine.
IV. Перепишите и письменно переведите предложения на русский
язык, обращая внимание на перевод неопределенных и отрицательных
местоимений.
1. Some 350 people attend this Summer School in Oxford.
2. Does he know any foreign language?
3. Any exhibit of the British museum is valuable.
V. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в них видовременные формы глаголов и укажите их инфинитив; переведите
предложения на русский язык.
1. Some of London's bridges function for more than one hundred years.
2. The construction of this wall began in the second century.
3. In two years my brother will become an engineer.
VI. Устно переведите весь текст, а абзацы 1, 2 и 3 перепишите и
11
переведите письменно.
Sightseeing in London
1.Great Britain’s capital is London, that is why there are a lot of places
of interest there. The best way to get about London and to do sightseeing is of
cause by taxi, but it is very expensive. So, it is more preferable to use the
underground. The easiest way to travel by the underground is to buy an
underground stations map. The word “underground” across the large circle
shows you the stations.
2.From the Tower Hill station it is a short walk to the Tower of London.
It is one of the most interesting places in London. The Tower was a fortress, a
royal residence, a prison and now it is a museum. Not far from the Tower you
can see the Tower Bridge, one of the finest bridges of London.
3.A walk along the Lower Thames Street brings you to the heart of the
City, the historical centre of the capital. There are many famous buildings here,
the Bank of England and St.Paul Cathedral among them. Not far from this
cathedral is Fleet Street. In this area almost all important British newspapers
have their offices.
4.There are a lot of museums in London. The most prominent of them
are the British Museum, the Tower and the National Gallery. The British
Museum is famous for its Greek ancient art and the National Gallery contains
one of the richest collections of European paintings.
There are many interesting things in London.
ВАРИАНТ 3
1.
Перепишите
следующие
предложения.
Определите
по
грамматическим признакам, какой частью речи являются слова,
оформленные окончанием -s, и какую функцию это окончание выполняет,
т.е. служит ли оно: а) показателем 3-го лица единственного числа глагола в
Present Indefinite; б) признаком множественного числа имени
существительного; в) показателем притяжательного падежа имени
существительного. Переведите предложения на русский язык.
I. The lecturer gave several examples of the Oxford scientists' international
ties.
2. The foundation of this city dates back to the beginning of XIV century.
3. The author mentions this phenomenon in his article.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их, обращая
внимание на особенности перевода на русский язык определений,
выраженных именем существительным.
1. He was one of the leaders of the partisan movement during World War II.
12
2. The report is about the Food Crisis Programme for Africa.
3. Not long ago he moved into a new two-room flat.
III. Перепишите следующие предложения, содержащие разные формы
сравнения, и переведите их на русский язык.
1. The more I study the English language, the more I like it.
2. John is one of the best students of our group.
3. My room is smaller than his.
IV. Перепишите и письменно переведите предложения на русский
язык, обращая внимание на перевод неопределенных и отрицательных
местоимений.
1. No student of that group studies English.
2. Some five hundred people were present at the meeting.
3. Have you any books on London sights?
V. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в них видовременные формы глаголов и укажите их инфинитив; переведите
предложения на русский язык.
1. John will come here later.
2. The student made no mistakes in this test.
3. Plasma is the fourth state of matter.
VI. Устно переведите весь текст, а абзацы 1, 2 и 3 перепишите и
переведите письменно.
London Attractions
1.London is more than twenty centuries old and there are a lot of
interesting buildings and sights in it. The majority of them are in the West End,
Westminster and the City. The West End of London is famous for its beautiful
monuments and palaces, fine parks fashionable shopping centers and expensive
hotels.
2.There are many places of interest in London. One of them is Trafalgar
Square with the Nelson’s monument and the National Gallery with its rich
collection of European paintings. Buckingham Palace is the royal residence.
Westminster Abbey is one of the beautiful buildings in London. It contains the
memorials of many prominent citizens of Britain. Close to Westminster Abbey
are the Houses of Parliament with probably the most famous clock tower and
tower clock, Big Ben.
3.But the most attractive sights of London are the British Museum and
St.Paul Cathedral. A lot of people from Britain and all over the world come
every year to visit these fine sights. The British Museum contains the richest
collection of the Greek ancient art.
13
4.As London is on the banks of the river Thames there is a number of
bridges in London. The most famous of them are the Tower Bridge, Waterloo
Bridge and Westminster Bridge. There is another famous English city on the
banks of this river. This is Windsor. There is a private castle of the British
monarch there.
ВАРИАНТ 4
1.
Перепишите
следующие
предложения.
Определите
по
грамматическим признакам, какой частью речи являются слова,
оформленные окончанием -s, и какую функцию это окончание выполняет,
т.е. служит ли оно: а) показателем 3-го лица единственного числа глагола в
Present Indefinite; б) признаком множественного числа имени
существительного; в) показателем притяжательного падежа имени
существительного. Переведите предложения на русский язык.
1. The first mention of the city dates back to the first century before our era.
2. The doors of the Oxford University are open only to those who can pay
its high tuition fees.
3. The 185-feet-high Nelson’s column is in the middle of the square.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их, обращая
внимание на особенности перевода на русский язык определений,
выраженных именем существительным.
1. During its twenty-century-old history the city experienced several dramatic
events.
2. London is now an important sea port.
3. Both British and foreign artists take part in the performances of this
concert hall.
III. Перепишите следующие предложения, содержащие разные формы
сравнения, и переведите их на русский язык.
1. The London port is the biggest in Europe.
2. The more experiments we carry out, the more data we obtain.
3. London is one of the most beautiful cities in Europe.
IV. Перепишите и письменно переведите предложения на русский язык,
обращая внимание на перевод неопределенных и отрицательных
местоимений.
1. Any monument in London has its own history.
2. Nobody knew anything about this experiment.
14
3. The names of some streets and squares are living history of the City.
V. Устно переведите весь текст, а абзацы 1, 2 и 3 перепишите и
переведите письменно.
London
1.The capital of Great Britain is London. It lies in the South East of
England on the banks of the river Thames. London is one of the largest cities of
the world and the largest port and an industrial centre of the country. It streches
for nearly thirty miles from north to south and for thirty miles from west to east.
2.The historical centre of London is the City. Its territory is only one
square mile, but it is the most important financial and business centre of the
whole country, the heart of its business life. Almost all important British banks
and a number of foreign banks have their offices there.
3.Other attractive areas of London are the West End and Westminster.
Here you can see a lot of historical monuments and places of interest. A lot of
people from different countries of the world come to London on business or as
tourists and do sightseeing tours by special buses. They attend cinema and
theatre performances, concerts in the concert halls, visit museums and art
galleries, do their shopping in the shopping areas.
4.The East End presents a sharp contrast to the West End and
Westminster. It is the district of factories, plants and docks. The narrow streets
and poor houses are much less attractive than the rich and beautiful buildings of
the other districts of London. But still the East End is very important part of the
capital due to its contribution to the economic development of the country.
ВАРИАНТ 5
1.
Перепишите
следующие
предложения.
Определите
по
грамматическим признакам, какой частью речи являются слова,
оформленные окончанием -s, и какую функцию это окончание выполняет,
т.е. служит ли оно: а) показателем 3-го лица единственного числа в Present
Indefinite; б) признаком множественного числа имени существительного;
в) показателем притяжательного падежа имени существительного.
Переведите предложения на русский язык.
1. This British works produces a lot of sophisticated goods.
2. A well-known scientist works at this plant.
3. The workers' salary here is very modest.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их, обращая
внимание на особенности перевода на русский язык определений,
выраженных именами существительными.
15
1. This laboratry is a young people work place.
2. We have a large State Library in our city.
3. The scientists developed new synthetic rubber products.
III. Перепишите следующие предложения, содержащие разные формы
сравнения, и переведите их на русский язык.
1. The average age of the people in our laboratory is the youngest in our
Institute.
2. The more often I visit London, the more I like it.
3. Automatic devices make the product cheaper.
IV. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие
предложения, обращая внимание на перевод неопределенных и
отрицательных местоимений.
1. We saw no new buildings in this part of London.
2. Almost any building in the West End is attractive.
3. There are some educational institutions in this part of the city.
V. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в них видовременные формы глаголов и укажите их инфинитив; переведите
предложения на русский язык.
1. The Oxford Polytechnical Institute is more than 50 years old.
2. Oxford came into existence as a trading town.
3. This town grows from day to day.
VI Устно переведите весь текст, а абзацы 1, 2 и 3 перепишите и
переведите письменно.
London
1.London is the capital of Great Britain, its political, economic and
cultural centre. The population in London is about twelve million people.
London is the biggest city in Europe. It lies on the banks of the river
Thames, not far from its mouth. The river Thames flows from west to east and
divides the city into northern and southern parts. But there is another division:
the City, Westminster, the West End end the East End.
2.The City is a small part of London. It is the historic centre of London.
But it is the financial and business centre of the country. There are a lot of banks
there. When Britain was a colonial power it accumulated great wealth. Due to its
geographical position London became one of the most important ports in Europe
and profited from trade with foreign countries.
3.Westminster is the administrative centre of London. The Houses of
Parliament are here. The West End is the part of the city where the rich people
live. The East End is the poorest part of the capital.
16
4.London is also the centre of the country’s cultural life. Thhere are a lot
of museums and picture galleries there. The National gallery houses a priceless
collection of paintings from many European countries. The British Museum is
one of the most famous museums of the world and the largest library in Britain.
КОНТРОЛЬНОЕ ЗАДАНИЕ № 2
Для того чтобы правильно выполнить задание № 2, необходимо усвоить
следующие разделы курса английского языка по рекомендованному
учебнику:
1. Видо-временные формы глагола: а) активный залог - формы Indefinite
(Present, Past, Future); формы Continuous (Present, Past, Future); формы
Perfect (Present, Past, Future); б) пассивный залог - формы Indefinite
(Present, Past, Future). Особенности перевода пассивных конструкций на
русский язык. 2. Модальные глаголы: а) модальные глаголы, выражающие
возможность: can (could), may и эквивалент глагола can — to be able; б)
модальные глаголы, выражающие долженствование: must, его эквиваленты
to have to и to be to; should.
3. Простые неличные формы глагола: Participle I (Present Participle),
Participle II (Past Participle) в функциях определения и обстоятельства.
Gerund - герундий, простые формы.
4. Определительные и дополнительные придаточные предложения
(союзные); придаточные обстоятельственные предложения времени и
условия.
ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ
a) Lobachevsky's geometry had revolutionized mathematics and the
philosophy of science
Геометрия Лобачевского произвела коренное изменение в математике и
философии науки.
had revolutionized - Past Perfect Active от глагола to revolutionize.
6) The new laboratory equipment was sent for yesterday.
Вчера послали за новым оборудованием лаборатории.
was sent for - Past Indefinite Passive от глагола to send.
ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ 2
1. The changes affecting the composition of materials are called chemical
changes. Изменения, влияющие на состав материалов, называются
химическими изменениями.
Affecting - Participle 1, определение.
17
2. When heated to the boiling point water evaporates.
Когда воду
нагревают до точки кипения, она испаряется, (или: При нагревании до
точки кипения вода испаряется.)
(When) heated — Participle II, обстоятельство.
3. Heat is radiated by the Sun to the Earth. Тепло излучается Солнцем на
Землю.
(Is) radiated - Participle П, составная часть видо-временной формы
Present Indefinite Passive от глагола to radiate.
ВАРИАНТ I
I. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них
глагол-сказуемое и определите его видо-временную форму и залог.
Переведите предложения на русский язык. В разделе (б) обратите
внимание на перевод пассивных конструкций.
а) 1. Our chemical science is successfully solving many complex problems.
2. Radio astronomy has given mankind efficient means for penetration into
space.
6) 1. Becquerel's discovery was followed by an intensive research work of
Marie and Pierre Curie.
2. Heat energy is transmitted in two different ways.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните Participle 1 и
Participle II и установите функции каждого из них, т.е. укажите, является
ли оно определением, обстоятельством или частью глагола-сказуемого.
Переведите предложения на русский язык.
1. Nylon was the first synthetic fibre used in clothing.
2. The atoms forming our planet are built of negative electrons, positive
protons and ordinary neutrons.
3. This kind of treatment when used makes the metals heat-resistant.
4. When passing through an electroscope. X-rays cause its discharge.
III. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из
них модальный глагол или его эквивалент. Переведите предложения на
русский язык.
1. One object may be larger than another one, but it may weigh less.
2. Mass can also be defined as a measure of inertia.
3. Man-made satelites had to use solar cells as a source of power.
4. Plastics should be reinforced by different kinds of fibres (to reinforce усиливать, укреплять).
IV. Устно переведите весь текст, а абзацы 2 и 3 перепишите и
18
переведите письменно.
Пояснения к тексту
1. Herman Helmholtz - Герман Гельмгольц
2. celebrated — знаменитый, прославленный
3. ophthalmoscope — офтальмоскоп
4. colour-blindness - дальтонизм, неспособность глаза различать
некоторые цвета
5. through - из-за, благодаря
6. vortex motion — вихревое движение
7. versatile — разносторонний, многосторонний .
HERMAN HELMHOLTZ
1.Herman Helmholtz is celebrated for his contributions to physiology and
theoretical physics. He early displayed a passion for understanding things, but
had no marked early talent for mathematics. Although he wished to study
physics, he was persuaded by his father to take up the study of medicine.
2.His researches into physiological optics began about 1850 with the
discovery of the opthalmoscope (1851), followed by investigations into colour,
including the problem of colour-blindness. He also made fundamental
contribution to the understanding of the structure and mechanism of the human
eye.
3.Helmholtz's first, and most celebrated paper in theoretical physics was
his article on the conservation of force. In this paper he proved the conservation
of total energy of a system of particles which were interacting through central
forces depending only on the masses and separations of the particles. Other
important work in theoretical physics included the famous paper on vortex
motion (1858), and the application of the principle of least action to
electrodynamical problems.
4.Helmholtz was undoubtedly the most versatile of nineteenth-century
scientists. From 1871 onwards he was perhaps more famous as a theoretical
physicist than as a physiologist. Apart from his work on the conservation of
energy he will be remembered for his epoch-making researches in physiological
optics and acoustics in which his talents as physiologist, physicist,
mathematician and experimentalist of genius were most vividly displayed.
ВАРИАНТ 2
1. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них
глагол-сказуемое и определите его видо-врсменную форму и залог.
Переведите предложения на русский язык. В разделе (б) обратите
внимание на перевод пассивных конструкций.
19
а) 1. Today scientists are still looking for a substance as a source of energy. 2.
The Mendelyeev system has served for almost 100 years as a key to discovering
new elements.
6) 1. Synthetic rubber products were developed between 1914 and the
1930s.
2. The intensity of this process is influenced by many factors.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните Participle I и
Participle II и установите функции каждого из них, т.е. укажите, является
ли оно определением, обстоятельством или частью глагола-сказуемого.
Переведите предложения на русский язык.
1. Molecular crystals are solids constructed of molecules held together by
relatively weak forces.
2. A body moving with a certain velocity carries within itself the kinetic
energy of motion.
3. While absorbing the energy of cosmic rays the upper atmosphere becomes
radioactive.
4. Unless properly treated the metal must not be applied for space technology.
III. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них
модальный глагол или его эквивалент. Переведите предложения на
русский язык.
1. Energy can exist in many forms and each form can be transformed into the
other.
2. The computers should become an integral part of the organization of
industrial processes of all types.
3. These metal parts had to be subjected to X-ray examination.
4. The chemists may use the reactor to analyze various substances for their
exact composition.
IV. Устно переведите весь текст, а абзацы 2 и 3 перепишите и
переведите письменно.
Пояснения к тексту
1. honorary board — доска славы, почета
2. in compiling this — собирая все материалы и факты
3. some sixty in all - всего около шестидесяти
4. verbally — устно
D.I. MENDELYEEV
1.A Russian name appeared in 1964 on the honorary board of science at
Bridgeport University, USA: Mendelyeev was added to the list of the greatest
geniuses - Euclid, Archimedes, Copernicus, Galilei, Newton and Lavoisier. This
20
was a recognition of D.I. Mendelyeev as the greatest chemist of the world.
2.D.I. Mendelyeev was born in Tobolsk. At 16 he was taken by his mother
to St. Petersburg to seek higher education. He entered the Pedagogical Institute
where his father had also studied. In 1856 he took a degree in chemistry and in
1859 he was sent abroad for two years for further training. He returned to St.
Petersburg in 1861 as Professor of Chemistry.
3.In 1868 Mendelyeev began to write a great textbook of chemistry, known
in its English translation as the "Principles of Chemistry". In compiling this he
tried to find some system of classifying the elements - some sixty in all then
known — whose properties he was describing. This led him to formulate the
Periodic Law, which earned him lasting international fame. He presented it
verbally to the Russian Chemical Society in October 1868 and published it in
February 1869.
4.In this paper he set out clearly his discovery that if the elements are
arranged in order of their atomic weights, chemically related elements appear at
regular intervals. The greatness of Mendelyeev's achievement lies in the fact that
he had discovered a generalization that not only unified an enormous amount of
existing information but pointed the way to further progress.
Mendelyeev created the system of classifying chemical elements.
ВАРИАНТ 3
L Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них
глагол-сказуемое и определите его видо-временную форму и залог.
Переведите предложения на русский язык. В разделе (б) обратите
внимание на перевод пассивных конструкций.
а) 1. The reactor is fast becoming a major source of heat and electricity.
2. Scientists have found ways of measuring the sizes and positions of bodies in
the Universe.
6) 1. Elements are transformed into other elements both by man and by nature.
2. The launching of Sputnik1 was followed by many achievements in science
and engineering.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните Participle I и
Participle II и установите функции каждого из них, т.е. укажите, является
ли оно определением, обстоятельством или частью глагола-сказуемого.
Переведите предложения на русский язык.
1. These reactions convert hydrogen into helium, giving off a great amount of
light and heat.
2. The formula E = mc2 deduced by Einstein is perhaps the most well-known
equation in the world.
3. Soils containing too much sand or clay are of less value in agriculture.
21
4. Plastics articles are often difficult to repair if broken.
III. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из
них модальный глагол или его эквиваленты. Переведите предложения на
русский язык.
1. Laser light can be used to transmit power of various types.
2. The application of digital (цифровой) computers should include all forms
of automatic control in science and industry.
3. These new materials had to withstand much higher temperatures than
metals.
4. Ethylene gas may be obtained by cracking petroleum.
IV. Устно переведите весь текст, а письменно -- 2-й и 3-й абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. Meitner - Майтнер
2. doctorate - докторская степень
3. then available - доступные в то время
4. illustrious - прославленный, известный
5. productive — плодотворный
LISE MEITNER
1. In 1938, an Austrian physicist named Lise Meitner announced the
splitting of the atom in the laboratory. That announcement confirmed once again
the beginning of the Atomic Age. At that time Lise Meitner was one of the few
persons in the world who had a thorough understanding of atomic energy and
the uses which could be made of this great power.
2. Lise Meitner, the daughter of a lawyer, was born in Vienna in 1878.
She grew interested in science when she read of the Curies’s discovery of
radium. The example of Marie Curie showed that a woman was able to achieve
something in science. Lise Meitner became the first woman in the history of the
University of Vienna who earned her doctorate in physics.
3. In 1906 she went to the University of Berlin to continue her studies by
attending the theoretical lectures of Max Planck and by doing experimental
work. There she began her research in the new field of radioactivity. She
focused her attention on the behaviour of beta radiation from radioactive
elements, experimenting with the primitive methods then available for
measuring and analyzing radioactivity. Meitner's work in the 1920s and early
1930s emphasized the physical aspects of radioactivity.
4. In 1938 she left Germany for Sweden. Lise Meitner declined to work on
the development of the atom bomb remaining in Sweden throughout the war.
She was concerned with the properties of new radioactive isotopes, produced by
22
the cyclotron. Her career was illustrious and productive (she published more
than 135 scientific papers), but throughout her life she remained a shy person,
with a deep interest in music. Her devotion to science had been total. She never
married. In 1960 she moved to Cambridge, England, where she died in 1968.
ВАРИАНТ 4
1. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них
глагол-сказуемое и определите его видо-временную форму и залог.
Переведите предложения на русский язык. В разделе (б) обратите
внимание на перевод пассивных конструкций.
а) 1. Quantum mechanics has greatly influenced the nuclear theory.
2. The problem of the structure of matter is constantly occupying the minds
of many scientists.
6) 1. Today many polymeric materials are produced on a massive scale.
2. Many compounds can be decomposed when they are acted upon by
different forms of energy.
П. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните Participle I и
Participle II и установите функции каждого из них, т.е. укажите, является
ли оно определением, обстоятельством или частью глагола-сказуемого.
Переведите предложения на русский язык.
1. Natural rubber is a thermoplastic material that becomes soft when heated
and hard when cooled.
2. Matter composed of any chemical combination of elements is called a
compound.
3. The smallest particle having all the characteristics of an element is called
an atom.
4. While bombarding the upper layers of the atmosphere, cosmic rays reach
the surface of the earth.
III. Перепишете следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них
модальный глагол или его эквивалент. Переведите предложения на
русский язык.
1. Heat can be divided into three different types.
2. A great number of plastics should find their applications in the electrical
industry.
3. Chemical means had to be used for the separation of compounds into their
elements.
4. The existence of an X-ray laser in the future may be possible.
IV. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст, а письменно -- 2-й и 3-й
абзацы.
23
Пояснения к тексту
1. Raman - Раман
2. pre-eminent - выдающийся, превосходящий других
3. the Civil Service - государственная служба
4. to appoint to a position - назначить на должность
5. to testify to — свидетельствовать о ...
6. to occupy the chair - возглавлять кафедру, заведовать кафедрой
7. brought - зд. привлек
8. to emerge — зд. проявить себя
СН. V. RAMAN
1. Raman was an Indian physicist, pre-eminent in molecular spectroscopy
and acoustics. He created the Indian Academy of Sciences in 1934 and was its
president until his death in 1970. He was justly considered as the father of
Indian science and the Indian Government honoured him with the First of its
National Professorships.
2. The son of a teacher and lecturer, Raman entered the College in Madras in
1903 and achieved the highest distinctions in the examinations for scientific
degrees. As scientific research was at this time almost completely neglected in
India, he then entered the Civil Service and was appointed to a position in the
Finance Department in 1907. He retained this employment for ten years, mostly
in Calcutta. When he was eighteen years old he published his first original
optical research in the Philosophical Magazine. He continued scientific work in
his spare time: some thirty papers testified to his ability and energy and helped
to make his name familiar to scientists in Europe and America.
3. In 1917 Raman was offered the professorship of physics at the Calcutta
University. He occupied the chair from 1917 to 1933. Raman brought to
Calcutta many talented young Indians to undertake research into optical
phenomena, acoustics and other branches of physics.
4. During the years in Calcutta Raman emerged as a truly international figure.
In 1930 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics (for his work on the
scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him). Raman
was honoured by universities and scientific institutions in the Soviet Union,
Europe and America as well as in his own country.
ВАРИАНТ 5
1. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них
глагол-сказуемое и определите его видо-временную форму и залог.
Переведите предложения на русский язык. В разделе (б) обратите
внимание на перевод пассивных конструкций.
24
а) 1. Astronomers have measured the exact length of the day.
2. Astronomers find that the day is increasing by 0.002 seconds each century.
6) 1. The chemical properties of an element are determined by the orbiting
electrons.
2. As a rule one great discovery is generally followed by numerous others.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните Participle I и
Participle II и установите функции каждого из них, т.е. укажите, является
ли оно определением, обстоятельством или частью глагола-сказуемого.
Переведите предложения на русский язык.
1. The cloud chamber (камера Вильсона) is one of the devices used to detect
the presence of radioactivity.
2. Matter consists of one or a number of basic elements occurring in nature.
3. One can use several modern devices while detecting and measuring
radioactivity.
4. When heated to a certain temperature, this alloy increases in volume.
III. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из
них модальный глагол или его эквивалент; предложения переведите.
1. We can think of heat as a special form of kinetic energy.
2. A computer should solve complicated problems many millions of times
faster than a mathematician.
3. New types of plastics had to be obtained for space technology.
4. To measure the vast distances between different planets scientists have to
use special instruments.
IV. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст, а письменно переведите 2й и 3-й абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. Powell - Пауэлл
2. particle physics — физика элементарных частиц
3. Pugwush Conferences - Пагуошские конференции
4. were determined - были полны решимости
5. won a scholarship - получил (по конкурсу) стипендию
6. position — должность
7. sub-nuclear particle - субъядерная частица
C.F.POWELL
1. Powell was a prominent English scientist noted for his techniques and
discoveries in particle physics. He was also deeply concerned with problems
relating to the social responsibility of scientists. Powell was a leader in the
25
World Federation of Scientific Workers in the mid-1950s and was a founder of
the Pugwush Conferences on Science and World Affairs in 1957. As a public
man and in his published articles Powell stressed the perils of destructive
weapons and the need for international cooperation.
2. Powell was born in December 1903 in England. His parents were poor and
they were determined to give their children a good education to increase their
opportunities for a better life. In 1921 Powell won a scholarship of one of the
colleges at Cambridge which he graduated in 1925 with first-class honours in
science. He started his science career at the Cavendish laboratory headed by
Ernest Rutherford. After gaining his scientific degree at Cambridge in 1928
Powell accepted a position at the new Physics laboratory in the University of
Bristol. Powell spent the rest of his career there advancing to professor in 1948
and director of the laboratory in 1964.
3. In 1947 Powell Bristol group identified a new particle in the cosmic
radiation. Powell and other two scientists discovered the -meson and
demonstrated that this subnuclear particle was produced directly in nuclear
reactions and rapidly decayed in flight, producing the -meson. The discovery
solved a complicated scientific problem and helped open a new era of particle
physics.
4. Powell continued to develop and apply the photographic method of Bristol.
His laboratory became the source of new experimental discoveries in meson
physics and an international training centre for physicists of many countries. In
1950 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his development of the photographic
method and his meson discoveries.
КОНТРОЛЬНОЕ ЗАДАНИЕ № 3
Чтобы правильно выполнить задание № 3, необходимо усвоить
следующие разделы курса английского языка по рекомендованному
учебнику:
1. Грамматические функции и значения слов that, one, it.
2. Пассивный залог (The Passive Voice) видо-временных форм Indefinite,
Continuous, Perfect.
3. Функции глаголов to be, to have, to do.
4. Простые неличные формы глагола. Инфинитив в функции а)
подлежащего, б) составной части сказуемого, в) определения,
г) обстоятельства цели.
5. Бессоюзное подчинение в определительных и дополнительных
придаточных предложениях.
26
ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ 1
Present Perfect Passive
The main question has already been
Главный вопрос уже обсудили.
discussed.
Present Indefinite Passive
His scientific work is much spoken
О его научной работе много
about.
говорят.
ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ 2
1. It is necessary to use the latest means
Необходимо использовать в
of control in industry.
средства контроля.
промышленности новейшие
2. One should agree that that expertrnent was of great importance for our
research.
Следует согласиться, что тот
эксперимент имел большое
значение для нашего
исследования.
Именно водород будет сновным
источником энергии в
автомобиле будущего.
3. It is hydrogen that will be the main
source of energy in the car
of the future.
ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ 3
1. What is the name of the book you
Как называется книга, которую
are reading?
2. The region we must explore posиссле-sesses great natural wealth.
ты читаешь?
Район, который мы должны
довать, обладает огромными
природными ресурсами.
ВАРИАНТ 1
I. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из
них видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого (см. образец).
Переведите предложения на русский язык.
1. When much material had been looked through and some problems had been
solved, the article was published.
2. Electric cars will be widely used in future.
27
3. Today plastics are being applied for car bodies (корпус автомобиля) .
4. This lecturer is listened to with great interest.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский
язык, обращая внимание на разные значения слов it, that, one.
1. It is proved that light needs time to travel any distance.
2. One must take part in scientific work.
3. Specialists consider that in future city transport will reject gasoline.
III. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на разные значения глаголов to be, to have, to do.
1. You have to come to the language laboratory of the Institute to work at your
pronunciation.
2. This material does not possess elastic properties.
3. Scientists had to create new materials for industry.
4. The exam was to start in the morning.
IV. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на
русский язык, обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.
1. We know electricity produces heat.
2. The new materials the Soviet chemists developed were used in space
technology.
V. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на
русский язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива.
1. It is necessary for a modern specialist to know a foreign language.
2. The Soviet scientists were the first to construct and launch the space rocket.
3. Our idea was to design a new device for automatic control.
4. To increase the productivity of labour one must use the methods we have just
described.
VI. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст, а письменно – 1-й и 2й абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. leap — прыжок
2. cushion — подушка
3. collaboration - сотрудничество
4. recoup — компенсировать
5. magnetic suspension train — поезд на магнитной подвеске
THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY TRANSPORT
28
1. It has been a long time since train velocities first surpassed the 100 km
per hour limit and they are now approaching 200 km per hour and even higher
velocities in some countries. Is it possible to increase the speed with the help of
the traditional wheel at the present stage in the development of transport
facilities? Scientists and engineers in various countries have come to the
conclusion that a new leap in velocity is possible only if the wheel is replaced
with an air or magnetic cushion.
2. After Japan, Germany and France our country took to the business of
developing high-speed ground transport. A number of research centres are
carrying out an extensive programme on high-speed ground transport. The
advantages of high-speed ground transport to be used in future are obvious. At
present air and road transport burns three-fourth of all produced fuels, and the
combustion process, naturally, affects the earth's ecology.
3. The future trains must be ecologically clean and noiseless. It has been
estimated that the cost of high-speed ground-transport will be recouped three
times faster than with the railways.
4. The high-speed ground-transport will connect cities and industrial
centres to airports. The first magnetic suspension train is already in operation
and is fast advancing.
ВАРИАНТ 2
1. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из
них видо-врсменную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите
предложения на русский язык.
1. When much had been done in the study of ecology by our university it
became аn important scientific centre.
2. A curriculum of the new type of secondary school is offered by the Ministry
of Education.
3. The research of planets will be developed with the help of cosmic apparatus.
4. This material is unaffected by solar radiation.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на
русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения слов it, that, one.
1. It is necessary to find new sources of cheap energy.
3. It was Einstein who came to the conclusion that the electromagnetic field is
influenced by the gravitational field.
3. This metro station was opened last year, and that one will be put into
operation in two years.
III. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на разные значения глаголов to be, to have, to do.
29
1. Man had to learn to obtain electric power directly from the Sun.
2. At present most of the industrial enterprises have their own electric power
stations.
3. Specialists do not use solar cells in industry as they are too expensive.
4. The engineers are to study the problem of using cosmic rays.
IV. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на
русский язык, обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.
1. The methods we have just described are very effective.
2. The instruments our plant produces help to automate production processes.
V. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на
русский язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива.
1. The teacher told her students to learn the poem by heart.
2. The Soviet Union was the first country to send man into space.
3. To translate a sentence is to discover its meaning.
4. A lot of people all over the world are uniting to fight wars.
VI. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст, а письменно -- 2-й и
3-й абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. magneto-heat engine —магнитно-тепловой двигатель
2. inexhaustible - неисчерпаемый, неистощимый
SUN-DRIVЕN ENGINE
1. It is of common knowledge that certain metals and their alloys are
attracted by a magnet. After heating, this property vanishes; it is restored after
cooling down. A new magneto-heat engine works on this principle. This
invention relates to devices which transform thermal power, for instance, the
power of the sun rays, into a mechanical power of rotation.
2. We know solar power is inexhaustible and its use does not harm the
environment. That's why such importance is attached to the devices which make
it possible to apply the idea of direct use of solar power, transforming it into
mechanical forms of power. The development of an engine directly driven by a
heat source such as solar power, makes it possible to simplify and make power
generation considerably cheaper, in comparison to the existing thermal engines
we use today.
3. The rotor of the new engine is made of an alloy that loses its magnetic
properties already at 100°C. If the rotor is heated on one side, the cold side of
the rotor will turn toward the magnet. Since heating continues, the rotor goes on
rotating, too. Thus solar power can be used as a source of heat in this case. The
30
magneto-heat engine can drive pumps in waterless districts, can also be widely
used for watering greenery in cities and settlements.
4. By using thermomagnetic alloys it is possible to develop a lot of
automatic devices, for example, solar clocks, thermometers, etc. Mention should
be made that these devices can withstand extreme temperatures. To organize the
production of the necessary alloys is simple as there is no need for rare materials
or complex technology.
ВАРИАНТ 3
1. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из
них видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите
предложения на русский язык.
I. The radar hаs been used for the automatic control of ground-transport.
2. Today plastics are being widely used instead of metals.
3. The construction of the dam has been completed this month.
4. The alloys were experimented upon in our lab.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на
русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения слов it, that, one.
1. It is the number of electrons within the atom that determines the properties of
a substance.
2. The territory of Moscow is larger than that of London.
3. In London one must get used to the left-side traffic.
III. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на разные значения глаголов to be, to have, to do.
1. Some substances do not conduct heat.
2. Our plant is to increase the output of consumer goods.
3. Soon our industry will have new and cheap sources of energy.
4. These computers will have to perform millions of operations per second.
IV. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на
русский язык, обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.
1. The hostel our students live in is situated not far from the metro station.
2. I think he has made a mistake in his calculations.
V. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на
русский язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива в
предложении.
1. They promised to supply us with the necessary equipment.
2. The purpose of this book is to describe certain properties of metals.
3. The experiment to be carried out is of great importance for our research.
31
4. To convert chemical energy into electrical energy we must use an electrical
cell.
VI. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст, а письменно -- 1, 2 и
3-й абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. project - зд. новостройка
2. manpower - людские ресурсы
3. coincide to the utmost — зд. предельно совпадать
4. harsh conditions — суровые условия
5. call for — требовать
6. transfer to — перемещать
7. revitalise -- оживить
ECONOMICAL PROGRESS
1. Approximately half the Russia’s territory is economically well
developed. The nearest task is to develop the other half in a planned manner,
that is, the tundra in Siberia, the Far East. Much has already been done in these
lands. But no matter what projects are to be built manpower is always the No. 1
problem.
2. Manpower has to be invited from the more developed areas. Can one
induce the population from the industrialized zone move to the areas needing
development? Apart from investments, our society is vitally interested in
making migration, which is necessary for developing new territories.
3. Our economy needs methods capable of attracting investments in order
to revitalise entire branches of our economy. Large sums are to be spent on
attracting a worker to move and to settle at a new place of work where new
production processes can be started. The securing of investments and manpower
resources for the new development are the main tasks of today.
4. The need to launch projects in harsh conditions calls for special
attention not only to the professional aspect, but also to the physical and moral
qualities of the workers. This makes it necessary to place new criteria on the
selection of people who want to come to new construction sites. They should be
judged by their physical and intellectual abilities, the ability to perform definite
functions, capability to adapt to the new conditions of life and work, their
psychological features, etc.
5. These demands are fulfilled best of all when the workers are transferred
to the projects in an organized way within production collectives, formed earlier
and having work experience. ВАМ proved that such an approach is effective.
32
The stability of such collectives has a favourable influence not only on the
activities of the enterprises themselves, but on the entire system of regional
manpower resources.
ВАРИАНТ 4
1. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из
них видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите
предложения на русский язык.
1. The automatic equipment is being installed in our shop.
2. Radioactive isotopes have been made in nuclear reactor.
3. The construction of this house will be completed in a month.
4. The engineer was asked about the new technology used at the plant.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на
русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения слов it, that, one.
1. The successes in chemistry made it possible to obtain a lot of new materials.
2. One must apply the material that can be machined easily.
3. It is the energy of falling water that is used to drive turbines.
III. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на
русский язык, помня о разных значениях глаголов to be, to have, to do.
1. The operators dealing with radioisotopes must have protective suits.
2. The engineers are to study the problem of using solar energy.
3. The chemical industry is one of the leading branches of our national
economy.
4. Our fabrics have acquired good reputation abroad.
IV. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на
русский язык, обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.
1. I think the drawing will be ready tomorrow.
2. Every substance a man comes in contact with consists of molecules.
V. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на
русский язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива в
предложении.
1. То design new buildings is the work of an architect.
2. To measure volumes we must know the dimensions of a body.
3. Our plant was the first to install the automatic equipment.
4. Architects have built houses to be heated by solar radiation.
VI. Перепишите и устно переведите на русский язык весь текст,
а письменно -- 1-й и 2-й абзацы.
33
Пояснения к тексту
1. mechanical engineering — машиностроение
2. power engineering — энергетика
3. Unified Power Grid of the USSR - Единая энергосистема СССР
SOVIET UNION AND RUSSIA
1. Heavy industry formed the basis of the USSR's industrial complex. Its
development was characterised by a high technological level of production, by
the emergence of new branches, including mechanical engineering for nuclear
power production.
2. Soviet power engineering comprised high-capacity electric power
stations forming part of the Unified Power Grid of the USSR. New electric
power stations such as the Bratsk Station and the Sayan-Shushenskoye Station
were built in the country. Siberia's power system was included in the USSR
Power Grid which was able to serve a large part of the territory of the Soviet
Union.
3. Today oil, gas and coal are largely being exported to foreign countries
in order to earn cash for the state budget which is in desperate need of money to
be able to pay wages and salaries to the state employees and pensions to the
retired people.
4. In the Soviet Union the light industry was developing at a fast rate.
Some Soviet fabrics, TV sets, watches and clocks and many other household
goods enjoyed good reputation abroad, others were of poor quality. Today the
light industry enterprises are idle and a lot of its workers are unemployed.
5. There was a highly advanced space technology and industry in the
Soviet Union, and now Russia is barely capable to maintain its space laboratory
“Mir” working.
ВАРИАНТ 5
1. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из
них видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите
предложения на русский язык.
1. Many 16-storey houses with all modern conveniences are being built in this
part of Moscow.
2. The sputniks are used for the research of magnetic fields and cosmic rays.
3. The properties of materials are affected by solar radiation.
4. Scientific and engineering progress opens up wide prospects before man.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на
русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения слов it, that, one.
34
1. It is necessary to obtain accurate data on the possibility of living and working
in space.
2. The peoples should know that only their joint efforts can secure peace in the
whole world.
3. We had to find new methods of investigation because the old ones were
unsatisfactory.
III. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на
русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения глаголов to be,
to have, to do.
1. A programme for the construction of new types of spaceships is to be carried
out this year.
2. Soviet people did not pay for medical treatment.
3. We had to change the design of this machine.
4. The speed of electrons is almost the same as that of light.
IV. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на
русский язык, обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.
1. We know radio and radar systems play a very important role at any airport.
2. The information science gets about other galaxies comes through
radiotelescopes.
V. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на
русский язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива в
предложении.
1.
The Soviet science was the first to make great contribution to the
development of space technology.
2.
In order to make interplanetary flights in the future it is necessary to know
factors affecting the human organism.
3.
The main purpose of the computers is to solve complex problems quickly.
VI. Прочтите и устно переведите на русский язык весь текст, а
письменно -- 2, 3 и 4-й абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. fundamental particle - элементарная частица
2. emergence – появление
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS
1. Science has been concentrated lately on the most promising
fundamental trends and fields, on increasing the practical effectiveness of
research. The physics of fundamental particles, the physics of the atomic
35
nucleus, and solid state physics occupy an important place in modern science.
2. There have been built powerful atomic electric stations and new types
of reactors which open up fine prospects in atomic power industry. Extensive
work is now being carried out on designing nuclear engines to be used for
transport. Much attention is being given to the application of isotopes, radiation
and other results of nuclear research in medicine, industry and agriculture.
3. Scientists have developed large-scale commercial manufacture of
artificial diamonds with properties which surpass those of natural diamonds. The
finest crystallo-graphic equipment has been developed making it possible to
study the atomic structure of materials.
4. The emergence of quantum electronics is one of the brightest events in
the history of physics. Our scientists have suggested and developed the ideas of
basically new sources of electro-magnetic emission-quantum generators. At
present, they are used in industry for cutting and welding metals, for high
precision treatment of various materials including diamonds and ceramics.
5. The necessity to conduct extremely fast technical calculations,
primarily in atomic technique, in aviation, rocketry and cosmonautics has led to
the development of fast-acting electronic computers. Computers and other
technical means of control are widely used in such fields as economics, planning
and management of production. One should remember that the wide use of
computers signifies a further advance in industry.
6. In recent years we have seen new vast progress in space research. At
present new international projects for studying the outer space and the other
planets of the solar system are being developed.
КОНТРОЛЬНОЕ ЗАДАНИЕ № 4
Чтобы правильно выполнить задание № 4, необходимо усвоить
следующие разделы курса английского языка по рекомендованному
учебнику:
1. Сложные формы инфинитива (Passive Infinitive, Perfect Infinitive).
Обороты, равнозначные придаточным предложениям: объектный
инфинитивный оборот, субъектный инфинитивный оборот.
2. Причастия (Participle 1, II). Независимый (самостоятельный)
причастный оборот.
3. Условные предложения. Используйте образцы выполнения
упражнений.
ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ
1. Millions of people are recorded to have taken part in elections.
Зарегистрировано, что миллионы людей приняли участие в выборах.
36
2. We want the new car to be produced by February.
Мы хотим, чтобы новый автомобиль был выпущен к февралю.
3. The device to be bought must be checked beforehand.
Прибор, который нужно купить, следует предварительно проверить.
БРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ 2
1.Countries wishing to cooperate with us will always find the necessary
understanding.
Страны, желающие сотрудничать с нами, всегда найдут должное
понимание.
2. Having visited St. Petersburg the participants of the conference went to
Moscow.
Посетив Санкт-Петербург, участники конференции поехали в Москву.
3. New technological processes having been developed, new types of
equipment have been installed in the shop.
Когда были разработаны новые технологические процессы, в цехе было
установлено новое оборудование.
ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ 3
1. If the installation is put into operation in time, the economic effect will be
greater.
Если установка будет пущена вовремя, экономический эффект возрастет.
2. If the system had been perfected, we should have applied it for new
calculations.
Если бы система была усовершенствована, мы бы применили ее для новых
расчетов.
3. It would be impossible to build spaceships without using new materials and
alloys.
Было бы невозможно построить космические корабли без применения
новых материалов и сплавов.
ВАРИАНТ 1
L Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык
следующие предложения. Помните, что объектный и субъектный
инфинитивные обороты соответствуют придаточным предложениям
(см. образец выполнения 1).
1. We know Japan to be the second industrial country after the USA.
2. For a long time, special paper impregnated with paraffin was considered to
be the main non-conductor used for manufacturing small capacitors
(конденсатор).
3. The metal to be poured into a mold for casting may contract or expand on
solidifying.
37
II. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык
следуюпще предложения. Обратите внимание на перевод зависимого и
независимого (самостоятельного) причастных оборотов (см. образец
выполнения 2).
1. Having done a number of calculations, our astronomers have shown that the
basic mass of the galaxies is concentrated outside their visible part.
2. A simple laboratory experiment demonstrating this principle is shown in Fig.
29.
3. Ordinary light entering a crystal of tourmaline, the phenomenon of “selective
absorption” takes place.
III. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык
следующие сложные предложения. Обратите внимание на перевод
условных предложений (см. образец выполнения 3).
1. If the computer's electronic memory had recorded all the operator's
commands, the picture of deviations from the required parameters would have
been produced.
2. If biological experiments are continued, the problem of developing the
technology for growing plants in space conditions will be solved.
3. It would be impossible to protect metal from corrosion without the films.
IV. Прочтите и устно переведите Весь текст, а письменно -- 1, 2,3
и 4-й абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. many times — во много раз
2. combat against — бороться против
3. home-made inhibitors – отечественные ингибиторы
CORROSION
1. During a year almost 200 million tons of metal objects are considered
to be destroyed by corrosion. Considering that about 600 million tons of metal a
year are produced in the world, it is easy to understand the losses of objects
without which our life could not be imagined.
2. The situation is very serious, because not only metal is destroyed but
also a great amount of articles, instruments, and tools whose cost exceeds many
times the cost of the metal used for their manufacture.
3. Cormbatting against the corrosion of metals has now become a key
problem in all industrialized countries. The scientific and technical
achievements in the field of raising the corrosion resistance of construction
materials are the basis of technical progress in different branches of industry, an
indicator of the country's economic potential.
4. A large amount of "anti-corrosion" work is being carried out in our
38
country. The results are evident: Home-made inhibitors, varnishes, paint covers
are being well known throughout the world. Gas pipelines, metal structures, the
bodies of atomic reactors and ships, etc. have been reliably protected against
corrosion.
5.Some of our firms also export special equipment and some kinds of
technology designed to weaken corrosion. Anti-corrosion varnishes, paints,
insulating materials and equipment are purchased abroad.
ВАРИАНТ 2
1. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык
следующие предложения. Помните, что объектный и субъектный
инфинитивные обороты соответствуют придаточным предложениям
(см. образец выполнения 1).
1. A number of our scientists believe the Tunguska explosion to have been
caused by a meteorite.
2. Samples of semiconductors with improved properties are reported to be
obtained on a new installation.
3. Scientific discoveries to be practically applied in industry and agriculture are
paid special attention to.
II. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык
следующие предложения. Обратите внимание на перевод зависимого и
независимого (самостоятельного) причастных оборотов (см. образец
выполнения 2) .
1. This atomic power plant starting to produce electricity in 1958 began
industrial using of atomic energy.
2. Light and food industries have been modernized, much being done to expand
the production of consumer goods.
3. An experiment demonstrating the existence of an ultraviolet and infrared
spectrum must be performed.
III. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык
следующие сложные предложения. Обратите внимание на то, как
переводятся условные предложения (см. образец выполнения 3).
1. If liquids expand upon freezing, an increase of pressure lowers the freezing
point.
2. If the metal had been heated slowly, the first changes in its appearance would
have occurred at a temperature of lOOOK.
3. It would be impossible to determine the properties of these materials without
intensive studies in our research laboratory.
39
IV. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст, а письменно -- 1,
2,3 и 4-й абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. Paton Institute of Electric Welding — Институт электросварки
им. Патона (в Киеве)
2. But they do -А они все-таки имеют(ся)
3. divers - ныряльщики
CREATIVE FIRE
1. All the industries today are in need of new methods of joining metals
together. And not only metals with metals but also joining metals with glass,
plastics and many other materials. The work done by the Paton Institute of
Electric Welding in Kiev (Ukraine) is considered to be the solution of these
problems. For example, how to weld a 1,000 km-long pipeline? The Institute has
developed a machine for welding pipelines. The welding section in each pipe
exceeds 100,000 sq. mm. It would take 6-8 hours to perform this work by hand.
The machine does it in two minutes.
2. The machine was tested in production conditions, the results being
excellent.
3. It would seem strange to compare the steel constructions that produce
oil in the Caspian Sea with a space station orbiting the Earth. What do they have
in common? But they do - it is the need for making repairs, and repairs mean
cutting metal and doing welding work.
4. The rapid development of the oil and other mineral resources of the
ocean made the problem of underwater welding especially up-to-date. The
equipment developed by Kiev's scientists is very effective. New semi-automatic
machines for underwater welding increased divers' productivity by 25-30 times.
5. And what about welding in outer space? The scientists understood that
welding had to be done in conditions of weightlessness, in nearly complete
vacuum and within a broad range of temperatures from 150°C below to 130°C
above zero. The equipment, of course, must be reliable and safe. And the
Institute developed such equipment.
ВАРИАНТ 3
1. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык
следующие предложения. Помните, что объектный и субъектный
инфинитивные обороты соответствуют придаточным предложениям
(см. образец выполнения 1) .
1. The Sun and stars are proved to be able to produce great quantities of energy
40
by means of certain nuclear reactions.
2. For the experiment we need several electrical devices to be connected in
series.
3. Lasers are known to have found application in medicine.
II. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык
следующие предложения. Обратите внимание на перевод зависимого и
независимого (самостоятельного) причастных оборотов (см. образец
выполнения 2).
1. Measurements of solar radiation reaching the Earth each day make it possible
to calculate the surface temperature of the Sun.
2. Having built a new automobile plant, we increased the output of cars and
buses.
3. Knowledge being the most valuable wealth of our times, the information
theory became of great importance for the national economy.
III. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык
следующие сложные предложения. Обратите внимание на то, как
переводятся условные предложения (см. образец выполнения 3).
1. If the gathered data had been presented in time, the results of the experiments
would have been different.
2. If you had answered six questions in the competition, you would have won
the first prize.
3. It would be impossible to carry on a careful study of the process without the
new device.
IV. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст, а письменно -- 1, 2,
3 и 4-й абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1.structure shaped like — структура, имеющая форму
2. seabed — морское дно
3. per side - по сторонам.
4. to bear a resemblance to — походить (быть похожим) на
PYRAMIDS ON MARS?
1. An examination of some of the photos of Mars sent back to Earth by
the space researchers Mariner-9 and Viking-1 provokes a question: was Mars
once an inhabited planet? A group of Soviet scientists from a number of
organizations examined the photos and gave their conclusions.
2. There were discovered formations which have been interpreted as "a
field of quadrangular pyramids". Manner-9 discovered formations which are
41
geometrically correct structures. Vikings-I photographed something resembling
the ruins of Egyptian pyramids. Nine kilometres east of the "city of pyramids"
the photograph shows a stone structure shaped like a human head, and a strange
dark circle.
3. The analyses and physical modelling of the Martian formations were
performed. The Martian surface was compared with that of the Moon, and the
shapes of the formations were compared with those of Egyptian and Mexican
pyramids.
The small Martian "pyramids" were found to resemble the recently
discovered giant pyramids, lying on the seabed of the Bermuda Island and the
pyramids, 250 m high, found in the Brazilian jungle.
4. But they are nothing in comparison to the large Martian "pyramids"
measuring up to 1.5 kilometres per side at the base and up to one kilometre in
height.
The image of the "Martian sphinx", 1.5 km long and 0.5 km wide, lies
strictly along the meridian of the planet.
5. In the opinion of experts, the photographed formations are indeed
pyramid-shaped, and the "oval shaped formation" bears a formal resemblance to
a head. But all these strange figures are of natural origin.
ВАРИАНТ 4
1. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык
следующие предложения. Помните, что объектный и субъектный
инфинитивные обороты соответствуют придаточным предложениям
(см. образец выполнения 1).
1. The crew is reported to have carried out a great deal of scientific experiments.
2. We know the wave theory of light to be first proposed by the English
physicist Robert Hooke in 1665.
3. Nearly all refrigerators to be used at home are based upon the principle that
the rapid evaporation of a liquid or the expansion of a gas produce cooling.
II. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык
следующие предложения. Обратите внимание на перевод зависимого и
независимого (самостоятельного) причастных оборотов (см. образец
выполнения 2).
1. A curve showing the behaviour of metal is given in Fig. 21.
2. About 100 years ago, a French scientist Pierre Curie subjecting certain
crystalline materials to pressure, observed that they produced an electric charge.
3. The computer's electronic memory recording all the operator's commands, the
picture of deviations was produced.
42
III. Перепишите и письменно проведите на русский язык
следующие сложные предложения. Обратите внимание на то, как
переводятся условные предложения (см. образец выполнения 3).
1. If one looks at his own face in a mirror, the image observed is technically
described as perverted.
2. If the service life of the instrument had been prolonged, the economic effect
would have been increased many times.
3. It would be impossible to ensure the full supply of energy without atomic
power stations.
IV. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст, а письменно -- 1,
2,3и 4-й абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. to play a part - играть роль
2. to their credit — на своем счету
3. means — средство
4. in the order of - порядка (г. e. около ...)
5. closest - ближайший
TODAY'S ELECTRONICS
1. Nowadays, much attention is given to electronics, which is playing a
major part in economic: development. Our scientists and engineers have many
achievements to their credit in this field. One outstanding example is space.
2. Electronics, however, has not only helped us to reach cosmic expanses
but has given us an insight into the world of the most minute organisms —
viruses. For instance, a modem electronic microscope shows the processes
taking place in ultra-microscopic formations of a living cell. Now it is possible
to distinguish details being a millionth of a millimetre away from each other.
3. Electronics is in many ways helping us to solve the problem of the
peaceful uses of atomic energy, and to study atomic nuclei and elementary
particles. We know electronics to have found broad application in industry as a
means of automation, control and inspection, and as a direct means of fulfilling
such operations as melting, cutting of superhard materials, welding, etc:
4. The electron beam acting like a micro-miniature instrument can cut,
bore, mill or plane any material, including tungsten and diamond, with an
accuracy to within microns. Quantum generators can focus light in extremely
narrow beams, their angular width being in the order of a thousandth of a
degree. These instruments are called lasers and they can be used for cutting,
drilling, welding and other treatment of materials.
5. The lasers are also used in studying the properties of various
substances, in radio-engineering, medicine, biology, etc. Scientists believe that
43
such a beam of light will make it possible to establish contact with the stellar
systems closest to our planet.
ВАРИАНТ 5
1. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык
следующие предложения. Помните, что объектный и субъектный
инфинитивные обороты соответствуют придаточным предложениям
(см. образец выполнения 1).
1. Now we know neutrino to have a rest mass (масса покоя) of about 30
electron-volts.
2. The properties of the new material are known to be determined next month.
3. Conduction is known to be a process by which heat is transmitted through a
substance by molecular activity.
4. All the changes of temperature and changes of state to be discussed are shown
by a graph in Fig. 2.
II. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык
следующие предложения. Обратите внимание на перевод зависимого и
независимого (самостоятельного) причастных оборотов (см. образец
выполнения 2).
1. Working with machines, sharp tools and motors one must always be careful.
2. The stream of electrons moving along the conductor is called electric current.
3. Powerful nuclear ice-breakers having been built in our country, we began a
new chapter in the history of Arctic exploration.
III. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык
следующие сложные предложения. Обратите внимание на то, как
переводятся условные предложения (см. образец выполнения 3) .
1. If you had translated the article, you could have used valuable data in your
work.
2. If the quality of the equipment were higher, the results of the experiment
would be more accurate.
3. It would be impossible to explain chemical phenomena without using the laws
of physics.
IV. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст, а письменно -- 2, 4 и
5-й абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. vacuum tube - электронная лампа
2. operating current - рабочий ток
44
3.transistorized
circuitry
—
цепь,
собранная
транзисторах
4. tunnel diode — туннельный диод
5. ring radio set - радиоприемник, встроенный в кольцо
на
ELECTRONICS
1. Electronics usually deals with the application of electricity in
communications, in radio, television and other devices where vacuum tubes and
transistors are employed. We know the vacuum tube and the transistor to be
major components of various electronic devices.
2. The many disadvantages of vacuum tubes include high cost, bulky
construction, high amount of operating current, limited life and high operating
temperature. However the vacuum tube is ideal in many situations where
electrical energy is readily available and where heat is no problem.
3. A more recent invention - the transistor - is known to have replaced the
vacuum tube in many situations. The transistor operates on a minimum amount
of electrical energy, emits very little heat and has a long life. Tne transistor is
tiny compared to the size of the vacuum tube of equivalent energy output. This
feature has permitted an electronic circuit to be so small that the electronic
technician uses magnifying lenses to aid him in his circuit construction and
repair.
4. Later research has revealed a device which has revolutionized the field
of transistorized circuitry. A Japanese investigator, Lew Esaki, discovered a
simple semiconductor class of crystal that is even more amazing than the
transistor. The tunnel diode as it is called, operates on a negligible amount of
electric current, its diameter being some few thousandths of an inch. With such a
transistor man will be able to see telephones to be worn on wrists, pocket-size
TV sets and ring radio sets.
5. Several recent developments in the field of electronics have led to
better ways to communicate efficiently over long distances. The maser and the
laser permit man to beam extremely coherent and concentrated energy with
almost no loss of intensity. Lasers and masers are known to have been used for
transmitting power, radio waves and other waves used in communication.
ADDITIONAL READING
FIBRES
A fibre may be defined as a unit of matter of hair-like dimensions whose
length is at loast 200 times greater than its width.
The principal use of fibres is in the manufacture of textile yarns and
ultimately textile fabrics.
45
Most textile fibres are slender, flexible, relatively strong beams that are
elastic, that is they stretch when put under tension and partially or completely
return to their original length when the tension is removed.
Each fibre has its own unique properties and no one fibre can satisfy all
manufacturing or use requirements.
Fibres are broadly classified as natural or man-made. Natural fibres include
those of vegetable (cellulose base), animal (protein base) or mineral (mineral
base) origin. Examples of each class are cotton, flax, jute (vegetable); wool and
silk (animal); asbestos fibre (mineral).
Vegetable fibres can bi divided into three classes: 1. seed and fruit hair
fibres; 2. bast fibres; 3. leaf fibres.
The first class of vegetable fibres, as their name suggests, are found as hairs
on the seeds or fruit of certain plants. The commonest example of this class of
fibres is cotton.
Bast fibres, also called soft fibres, are obtained from the stalks.
Leaf fibres, also called hard fibres, are recovered from leaf portions of some
plants. They are harder and have a larger diameter than bast fibres and are used
mainly in cordage. The most important leaf fibre is abaca (often called Manila
hemp).
Animal fibres usually grow from the skin as a protective covering of various
animals. They differ in length, diameter and physical structure with the source
of their origin. The most important animal fibre is wool which forms the fleecy
coat of the domestic sheep. Other animal fibres are derived from the hair or fur
of camel, lama, rabbit etc. They are all used in apparel.
Mineral fibre. The only naturally occurring mineral fibre is asbestos. Its name
is derived from Greek compound word signifying
"incombustible",
"inextinguishable". It is a fibrous mineral substance, one of the most remarkable
in the mineral world. Known primarily for its fireproof properties, asbestos has
achieved its importance by reason of the many forms in which it serves and
protects man.
Man-made fibres are the achievement of the science of the 20th century.
They may be divided into two classes: rayons and synthetic fibres. Rayons are
manufactured by alteration of natural fibrous substance (for example, cellulose).
Synthetic fibres are obtained from the fibrous matter produced by chemical
process called polymerization, in which many units of simple chemical
substances combine to form long-chain molecules. By selecting suitable simple
compounds and controlling the degree of polymerization, it is possible to
produce new substances whose properties can be predicted. This means that it is
now possible to produce entirely new fibres with desired combinations of
properties.
46
COTTON
The term "cotton" refers to the plant which is famous for its fluffy fibre. This
term is also referred to the cotton fibres which consist of unicellular hairs
varying in length from a small fraction of an inch to two inches or slightly over.
Cotton is a tropical plant adapted to temperate zones, growing best with high
temperatures, considerable sunshine, abundant but not excessive moisture and
high soil fertility.
Cotton fibres occur attached to a seed about the size of a small pea and have
a spiral twist making them espacially valuable for spinning. One seed contains
about 10,000 fibres which may vary in diameter from 12 to 25 microns
depending on the type of cotton.
Microscopic examination of the cross section of a fibre reveals that the fibre
is a spirally twisted tube having a rough surface. Each fibre consists of an outer
cell wall and an inner layer of cellulose comprising the secondary wall.
Cotton is a strong fibre but is not highly extensible (stretchable). Since cotton
fibres are only about 1 in. long they must be spun into continuous yarns. Partly
because if its low extensibility, the cotton fibre does not recover well after
stretching and so cotton fabrics do not exhibit good wrinkle resistance unless
chemically treated with crease resistant finishes.
The spirality of a cotton fibre distinguishes it from all other natural fibres
and gives it elasticity and superior value for spinning. No other natural fibre has
this feature.
Cotton fibres are about 20% stronger when wet than dry. This property is an
obvious advantage in wet uses, particularly for laundering. Because of its
launderability, cotton is particularly useful for toweling. It can be sterilized by
steam of by hypochlorite bleaching; such treatment enhances its whiteness and
makes it of value for surgical and sanitary uses. The uses of cotton fibres are so
widespread that it is by far the most important of all textile fibres.
FLAX
We know flax to be an annual plant grown in many temperate countries for
the production of linseed and linen fibre. In English-speaking countries both the
plant and the fibre are called flax, while the yarn and fabric produced from flax
are called linen. In the United States the word "linen" is often used to identify
tablecloths, towels and similar articles that may or may not be made of flax
fibres.
We know the use of flax to have a greater antiquity than any other
commercial fibre. Some historians claim flax to have been cultivated by the
ancient Mexicans in the earliest period of our civilization. Flax was cultivated in
prehistoric times, possibly at first for food. We know it to have been found in
the ruins of the Stone Age lake dwellings of Switzerland and it is known that the
ancient Egyptians made linen cloth from flax fibres. Later flax cultivation spread
47
through Europe and Asia. It reached the United States during the colonial period
where it was widely grown for fibre before the invention of the cotton gin in
1792 made cotton a cheaper fabric. The manufacture of linseed oil in the United
States began in 1805.
While the plant can be grown in nearly every portion of the temperate world,
it is produced commercially throughout Europe and in portions of Africa and
Asia, Japan, Australia, Canada and the USA. Russia is the world's chief
producer of flax fibre; other leading producers include Poland, France, Ireland.
Flax is harvested for fibre when the leaves have fallen from the lower twothirds of the stem . The crop is harvested by pulling the plants from the ground
by hand or by pulling machines.
The disseeded straw (stems) is retted to dissolve the gum that binds the
fibres to the woody portion of the stem. Retting is completed after 7 to 21 days.
There are three methods of retting. Dew retting is the simplest, when the
straw is spread over the field like hay and retted by dew and by the action of
elements. Pool retting is immersing the straw in pools of stagnant water. The
pools are dug in the ground for this purpose. Retting in running water is the third
method. The fibres separated by retting are bailed and shipped to spinning mills.
Flax fibre is strong, lustrous and, when bleached to a sparkling white,
produces an attractive appearance for apparel goods as well as tablecloths and
napkins. Because of its high strength it is also used in fish nets, sewing thread
and fire hose. Fineness of the linen yarns is taken into consideration in choosing
them for appropriate end uses. We know fine yarns to be used in weaving highquality linen fabrics such as laces, household linens and dress goods. Coarse
yarns are used for fabrics such as rough toweling, or for making cord or rope.
Linen is especially suitable for towels because of its good absorbing power.
WOOL
The thick covering of coat of the domestic sheep consists of a mass of fibres
called wool. Wool fibres grow in tufts of as many as a dozen fibres. Density of
fibre varies widely with the breed and from one part to another of the body of
the individual sheep. There are more than 200 different breeds of sheep in the
world, representing all grades of wool from the finest to the coarsest.
Sheep's wool is classified into five generally recognized types: fine, medium,
long, crossbred and carpet (or mixed). Fine wools are produced by Merino sheep
while most medium wools are produced by English breeds. Fibres to be obtained
from Asiatic sheep are classed as carpet wool.
The sheep is sheared to obtain the wool. The fibres are sheared from the
living sheep (although some wool is "pulled" from slaughtered sheep) and are
then sorted and graded for fibre length, diameter and colour. Wool is sheared
from the sheep ordinarily once each year. The wool to be spun into yarn has to
be sorted and washed.
48
The use of wool for human clothing reaches far back into antiquity, if not
prehistory. Its outstanding qualities of resilience, wrinkle resistance,
hygroscopic quality, felting property and lowe heat conductivity lomg ago gave
it a high useful- ness not only for human clothing, but for blankets, upholstery,
floor covering,etc. The wool to be used for clothing must possess good natural
colour. Owing to a whole range of useful proper- ties wool is also used for the
production of industrial fabrikc and articles.
The most striking characteristic of wool fibre is its felting property. It is
caused by the horny scales of the outer layer of the fibre. To convert wool fibres
into felt they are subjected to heat, moisture and mechanical agitation. No other
fibres possess this property to such a marked degree. But this property may be a
disadvantage because wool textiles shrink sonti- nuously if wet laundered. This
is why wool garments to be cleaned are treated with organic solvents rather than
with water.
SILK
Silk, the only natural animal fibre that does not grow from the skin as a
protective covering, is extruded as a long continuous filament by the silkworm.
Silk filaments are extruded by the silkworms in spinning their cocoons.
The spinning begins by the insect making first an outer network and then
winding the silk in a continuous thread around its body. The operation of
spinning occupies about five days, during which time the insect usually
produces from 2,000 to 3,000 feet of silk.
Within 10 - 12 days after completion of the cocoon, the enclosed insect is
ready to emerge. After moistening one end of the cocoon with enzymes that
partially dissolve the fibres the moth pushes aside the filaments and emerges
from the cocoon, lays its eggs and dies. In performing this operation the insect
cuts the silk filament making it unsuitable for application.
When microscopically examined, silk is seen to consist of two blended
strands. These are produced by special glands which extend nearly the whole
length of the body.
The silk filament being so fine makes it necessary to reel together several
filaments in order to obtain a thread of sufficient size. This is done in large
factories called filatures. Here the cocoons are placed in basins of hot water near
the boiling temperature. The hot water softens the gum which covers the silk
filament and sets the fibre free. After the end of the silk fibre being found the
cocoons are reeled off into hanks.
A single cocoon of good quality may furnish from 400 to 800 yards of
reelable filament. Silk that has been reeled is known as raw silk. The damaged
cocoons and the parts of each cocoon which cannot be reeled are known as
waste silk. Waste silks are combed and spun into spun silk.
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Owing to the outstanding properties (high strength, lustre, elasticity and
beauty) silk can be successfully used for the production of different kinds of
clothes and for industrial purposes.
THE HISTORY OF MAN-MADE FIBRES
The first person to visualize the possibility of making an artificial fibre by a
process similar to the spinning of the silkworm was Robert Hooke, an English
scientist. He included a discussion of the subject in his book "Micrographia",
published in 1665, no concrete developments along these lines having occurred,
however, until the middle of the 19th century. In 1842 an English silkweaver,
Louis Schwabe, exhibited a machine for making artificial filaments. This
machine used nozzles with fine holesthrough which the liquid was forced in
order to form filaments, this being the principle of spinnerets used today.
Schwabe spun his filaments of glass, but was not satisfied with the product and
appealed to British scientists to discover a better material from which to
manufacture filaments.
A further development preparing the way for man-made fibres was the
discovery of nitrocellulose by C.F.Schonbein, a Swiss chemist, in 1846.
In 1855 Audemars of Lausanne took matters a liuttle further.He obtained
nitrocellulose from mulberry twigs and dissolved it in a mixture of ether and
alcohol with caoutchouc. From the mass that resulted he drew, with a steel
needle, threads that solidified in air, and finally wound them on a spool. This
process is described in British Patent 283 of 1855. But it was too early then for
the process to be developed practically.
The development of man-made fibres as a textile really began with the
work of Count Hilaire de Chardonnet (1839-1924) who is often called the
"father of the rayon industry", rayon being a man-made fibre based on cellulose.
He produced his first fibre by what became to be known as nitrocellulose
method in 1884.
The development of rayon represented the first big break fromnature in
the production of fibres. Rayon being based on naturally occurring fibrous
material (cellulose), the fibre cannot be considered as true man-made
fibre.Rayons are made by alteration of natural fibrous substance (cellulose).
Further research became centred in producing fibrous material that cannot be
found in nature. It was discovered that chemically fibrous material was
composed of long-chain molecules. These were eventually synthesized from
simple materials (coal,water and air).
A well-known example of synthetic fibres is nylon. It originated in the
laboratories of E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.in 1927. It was first introduced to
the public in 1938 as bristles in tooth brushes. In 1939 hosiery knitted of nylon
yarn was produced in limited scale. In 1940 nylon hosiery was offered to the
public on a national scale.
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The emergence of synthetic fibres means that it is now possible to produce
entirely new fibres with desired combinations of properties.
MAN-MADE FIBRES
There are two types of man-made fibres: rayons and synthetic fibres.
Three processes are used for making rayon fibres: the viscose,
cuprammonium and soponification processes. They differ in their methods of
converting cellulose into the soluble compound that is converted into filaments,
the collulosic soluble compound being called spinning solution. The spinning
solution being prepared, it is extruded, or spun, through perforated plates, called
spinnerets. They are made of metal alloys such as platinum and iridium or
platinum and gold. They are parforated with circular, concentrically arranged
openings of almost microscopic size (about 0,1 mm in diameter). The size of the
openings governs the size of the filament extruded.
The basic material used for the production of rayon is wood pulp, though
some cotton is used by some makers. The wood is pulped by the sulphite
process and converted into nitrocellulose. This is dissolved in a mixture of
alcohol and ether, and the solution is filtered and then aged. When in proper
condition, the pulp is forced through spinnerets and converted into threads.
But rayons cannot be considered as true man-made fibres since they are
produced from naturally accurring fibrous material (cellulose). A further
development in the production of man-made fibres was the emergence of
synthetic fibres. They are made by a chemical process called polymerization, in
which many units of simple chemical subctances combine to form large
molecules whose properties are quite different from those of the basic units. For
polimerization to occur, each molecule must contain two potential open ends
and monomer units must join end-to-end into linear polymer. However, if the
monomere contain more than two sites of reaction (e.g. butadiene, phenol), then
netlike (cross-linked) instead of threadlike molecules result.
When certain types of simple compounds are polimerized under special
conditions the units form long chains, long-chain polimers being manufactured
into fibres.
The first synthetic fibre to be produced commercially was nylon. It can be
made in a number of ways from carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. The
carbon comes from coal, petroleum or natural gas. Nitrogen and oxygen come
from the air and hydrogen from water.
Man-made fibres have made quite remarkable progress in clothing as well
as in other industries over the past 25 years, the best established use for manmade fibres in clothing industry being, of course, in linings, suits and overcoats.
But no fibre, natural or man-made, is perfect for all uses. Indeed, the very
properties that make a fibre suitable in one type of aplication may reduce its
value in another.
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Economics
ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
Most people work to earn a living, and produce goods and services. Goods
are either produced in the agricultural sector (like milk, vegetable, fruit) or
manufactured at plants and factories (like pen, paper, and cars). Services are
such things as education, medicine, and commerce. They are provided by people
who are called employees. Some people provide goods, some provide services.
Some other people provide both goods and services. For example, in the same
garage a car can be bought or some service can be obtained in order to maintain
this car or to repair it.
The work people do in exchange for payment is called economic activity.
The economic system of a town, of a city, of a country, of the world is made up
of all economic activities together of these respective communities. Countries
differ in their economic activities. The work people undertake either provides
them with what they need or provide the money with which they can buy
essential commodities. Of course, most people hope to earn enough money to
buy commodities and services, which are non-essential, but which provide some
particular personal satisfaction, like books, visits to the cinema, trips, etc.
There are two extreme forms of economic arrangements of the economic
activity: privately owned economy and State-owned one. The former is often
called as ‘free market economy’; the latter is associated with the term ‘command
economy’. This type of economy dominated in the former socialist countries. If
complete freedom of economic activity is allowed this can create difficulties,
because the freedoms of various individuals or individual companies often
conflict. Laws have been created to regulate economic activity, and they are
concerned with working conditions, worker’s health, wages, pensions, and
location of places of work.
Even in the most dedicated free enterprise systems, such as the USA, a need
for some degree of State control of the economy has been felt. Some developing
countries are interested in control and log-term planning. Such countries as India
have a number of plans to guide the economy. They are enacted by the
government. Such systems where both private and public sectors coexist are
often called as countries with mixed economy.
PRODUCTION
Production is the means whereby resources are organized to produce the
goods and services which people require for the satisfaction of their wants. In
today’s world an increasing number of people are employed in the service
industries such as banking, leisure, finance and administration, rather than in the
manufacturing sector. In order to achieve production, inputs of factors of
production are to be used. The latter are divided into land, labour and capital.
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Land is regarded as a ‘gift of nature’. It includes any valuable mineral
deposits. It is also the basic space requirements within which factories may be
sited, foodstuffs can be grown, or services can be provided.
Labour constitutes an essential element in all forms of production. It
represents all forms human effort, manual and mental, skilled or unskilled which
people must deploy.
Capital, in economic terms, may be defined as goods which can be used to
produce other goods. Property such as factory buildings, machinery and raw
materials are all forms of capital which are used in the process of production.
Production activities must be remunerated or paid. The main forms of
payment to employees are wages and salary. Wages are usually paid as a certain
sum of money per hour to manual workers, while a salary is a fixed sum, which
may be paid monthly to non-manual staff.
As for wages they are usually paid on a basic time rate, often agreed by
negotiations between trade unions and management. Pay is expressed as an
hourly rate. In addition, there may be supplements, such as overtime payments,
danger money or dirty money for work in exceptional circumstances.
A salary is usually expressed as a fixed annual sum, and it is not usual to
supplement it, although certain additional benefits may be provided. These are
called ‘fringe benefits’ or ‘perks’. They are normally benefits of goods or
services such as a company car, membership of a private health scheme, or a
company’s own pension fund. In order to attract right people to a job a firm may
offer help removal expenses or to provide a low-interest mortgage for house
purchase. Recently profit sharing has become popular in recruiting and keeping
staff.
The CEOs, chief executive officers, are paid very high salaries. Their
annual income, that is, salaries and perks can amount to numerous millions of
dollars. We are informed by the Journal of Institutional Investor, an American
publication of June 30, 2006, that J. Simon, the top-manager of the Renaissance
Technology collected $1.5 billions in 2005, while his colleague from
B.P.Capital Management Т.Pickens made $1.4 billion. It should be emphasized
that these huge incomes produced public outcry among the shareholders of the
respective companies. A number of Congressmen even introduced a bill against
this kind of abuse.
ECONOMICS
Alfred Marshall defined economics as the study of mankind in the everyday
business life. There are other definitions too. But Marshall’s definition draws
attention to that unique feature of human society: that unlike animals, man
provides for his everyday needs by means of a complex pattern of production,
distribution and exchange.
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We need food, clothes and shelter. If we could get them without working,
we probably would not work. But even when we have these essential things, we
may want other things because they might make life more enjoyable. Human
beings certainly have a wide and very complex range of wants. This everyday
business of providing the means of life is called by the general term ‘economy’.
Economics is the study of economies. The science of economics is
concerned with all that man produces and not just our basic needs like food,
clothes and shelter. The science of economics is based upon the facts of our
everyday lives and the general life of our communities. If we want to understand
the whole economic system of which we are part we have to study carefully the
economic activity of the society
Apart from production, distribution of products among various groups in
society and exchange, economics studies the institutions that were created by
man to promote economic development.
Economists are those who observe and study economic facts and produce
economic theories. They try to describe the facts of the economy in which we
live, and to explain how it all works. The economist’s methods should be strictly
objective, if it is to be scientific. In order to understand the evolution of
economy economists must study economies of man at different stages of his
historic development. They studied primitive economies, economies of the
ancient and the middle-age societies. But their main interest is being focused on
the economy of the advanced industrial countries. It is not in good shape to-day.
It is characterized by a low growth rate, unstable monetary system, stagnation of
the employees’ income and rather high unemployment.
ECONOMIC THEORIES
As we were reading in lesson 1 Alexander came to London to study
economics. Now that he has returned home he is ready to apply his knowledge
in his practical work in Russia. Before coming to London he was sure that
market economy was a magic arrangement enabling to solve all economic
problems which arise in society. He also knew that economics was a science
producing accurate understanding and explanation of the workings of the
economy. But now he knows that there are a lot of conflicting sociopolitical
theories on many issues which are covered by economics. He was taught that
the most persistent debate in economics had focused on the degree to which the
government was able to improve the economy’s performance. And he was
informed that none of the competing theories had performed spectacularly well.
Indeed few economists have successfully predicted major economic events.
Even annual forecasts of inflation, unemployment and output are regularly in
error. He also learnt that there were never-ending arguments about, for example,
what had caused such dramatic world event as the Great Depression of the
1930s.
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Two hundred years ago, Adam Smith convinced most of the world that
economy worked best when it was left alone. During the years of the Great
Depression the British economist John Maynard Keynes forced people to rethink
that conclusion. He convinced people that active government intervention in the
market place was the only way to ensure economic growth and stability. For
nearly thirty years this theory dominated the economics profession and public
policy. And for thirty years the economy of the industrial countries displayed the
longest economic boom in the history of these countries. In the early 1970s,
when the economy of all industrial countries was performing badly, most of the
economists were sure that Keynes’ theory would be abandoned. Since 1980s,
Milton Freedman’s monetarist theory was adopted as a guide-line to run the
economies of the industrial countries.
Since M.Thatcher in Great Britain and R.Reagan in the USA this theory
began to be implemented in these two countries. Later it was expanded to the
rest of the industrial world, although with differing degrees. As unemployment
and inflation rate began to decline, supporters of this theory claimed victory. But
critics pointed to the problems of poverty, homelessness, budget deficits and
inadequate public services. And they emphasized that there were no signs of
improvement.
PEOPLE IN EMPLOYMENT
If an offer of employment is received and is accepted, the employee and
the company for which he or she is to work conclude a contract of employment.
The contract specifies the terms and conditions governing employment. It
normally includes such items as pay per hour, hours of work and pensions.
If either the employer or the employee is not satisfied the contract of
employment can be brought to an end. The period of notice is usually contained
in the contract. If it comes to such cases as dishonesty, serious neglect of duties
or absence without good reason, an employee will be dismissed without notice.
If an employee feels that he or she has been dismissed unfairly, he or she can
bring a complaint before an industrial tribunal. The employee will be reinstated
to the job or awarded compensation provided the dismissal is found as unfair.
If an employee became redundant as a result of the firm’s closure the
redundant employee would become entitled to redundancy pay. And it would
depend upon the employee’s age and length of service.
Those who are employed in civil service, that is in government or public
administration, they feel more secure in their employment. The reason is that the
number of people working in the public sphere is not reduced but steadily
increases. Their job in administration is organized in a hierarchy (i.e., on
different levels of seniority). They are given more authority and material
rewards as they rise from bottom to the top of the hierarchy. Appointments and
promotions are made on the basis of experience and qualification. However,
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there are disadvantages to government work. The material rewards are often less
generous than those offered by private companies.
A working life normally ends in retirement. The retirement age varies
from county to county. But in all advanced industrial countries it is much higher
than in Russia. The difference amounts to 5 – 7 years.
ROBOTS
FORERUNNERS OF ROBOTS
The word 'robot' is known to have been first used by the Czech writer
K.Capek to denote human-like mechanical creatures. The American writer Isaac
Asimov employed this term in 1939 to describe "intelligent" machines, which
had been constructed to carry out special tasks without danger for human beings.
The ancestors of robots, the androids, operated centuries ago and were
masterpieces of mechanical design. The androids are known to have been built
by Pierre Jaquet-Doz, watchmaker of a small town in Switzerland. They were
built in 18th century and continued to arouse considerable amazement until the
20th century. We know Jaquet-Doz to have created the lady pianist, the writer
and the draughtsman. The grace with which these excellent models performed
their activities amazed the society of those days.
In contrast with its forerunners the robot to be employed in industry now has
no human form and from the outside looks like a machine. But in these days it
draws men under its spell exactly as did the androids of some 250 years ago.
Wherever they are exhibited, robots seem always to come up with surprises and
attract the visitors like magnets.
Some people attributed the success of the robots to one simple fact: the rising
costs of human labour favour the robot. In their opinion the industrial robots are
highly efficient competitors in factories although they are blind, deaf and dumb
assistants with a limited memory and a restricted capacity for making decisions.
Robots as every kind of machines are introduced into industry whenever they
can perform operations more efficiently and with greater speed than a human
being does or they are able to operate in conditions and environments
unacceptable for the human.
The introduction of robots in industry is known to entail important social
implications. For the free market countries this means a massive replacement of
the labour force and increased unemployment. That is why the employees not
infrequently regard robots as their competitors, which endanger their position in
the work-force market. The situation is totally different in the countries with
planned economy where the same process of introduction of industrial robots
leads to an increased productivity and improved conditions at the work-place.
ELEMENTS OF A ROBOT
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Elements of an industrial Robot are known to comprise:
a} An arm completed with gripper or tool mounting facility.
b) A control system to direct the sequence and functions of the arm and to
interact with external environment.
c) A group of control elements to provide the drive power for the system and
enable the interfacing of other equipment to be accomplished without needing to
change the robot control system.
Arm Construction
The robot arm is the articulated arm system to provide the capability to reach
a specific length in the air, to produce an arc about the base and provide a
necessary volume.
Two systems of arm exist today: the jointed arm concept and the boom type
of system that telescopes the gripper to position. The control system employs a
mini-computer as a heart of the system together with a Visual Display Unit
(V.D.U.) and key-board for function operation and a hand held portable unit for
teaching the robot the position and sequence of moves.
Control systems may be found to be either complete computer controlled, a
solid state sequence control system, or a relay system providing control
commands to the mechanical arm which in turn moves to pre-set limit switches
or mechanical trip dogs.
Tool Centre Point
Two sets of independent rectangular co-ordinate systems are utilized. They
comprise a set of positioning axes which control the In and Out or X motion of
the arm, a movement about the base giving left and right movement called Y
Axis and up and down movement which is the Z Axis.
In addition to positioning the tool or gripper at a particular point in space
there is frequently a need to orientate the robot hand in a particular position to
the component to be processed. This operation is frequently known as
Orientation of the Wrist and on a full 6 axis robot is accomplished by the
provision of YAW Motion, which is a rotational movement about the Z Axis, a
PITCH movement, which is rotation about the Y Axis and ROLL, which is rotation about the X Axis. It is the transformation of this information that requires a
computer to calculate the point in space in 6 axes back to a single set of data
storage points.
AUTOMOTION
A simple example of automation is the thermostatically controlled heating
system in a home. The furnace provides the heat, but the thermostat
automatically turns the furnace on and off to keep the temperature of the home
constant. One machine starts and stops another. A more elaborate example of
automation is the computer complex that controls an automobile production line
or prepares a company payroll.
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Automation may be defined as any continuous, integrated operation of a
production system that uses electronic computers or related equipment to
regulate and coordinate the quantity and quality of what is produced. Automatic
control of production is achieved in factories by transfer machines, which move
a product from place to place for successive operations.
Computers, transfer machines, and related equipment use the principle of
‘feedback’ a concept of control in which the input of machines is regulated by
the machines' own output. Although the use of machines dates back to the steam
engine of the 18th century and to the assembly line of the early 20th century,
feedback is a new development truly unique to automation. (Under this
definition, a farm cannot be called automated merely because of the hugeness of
its tractor, since the principle of feedback is lacking.)
Automation covers the output of both physical products and of services. It
may be used to administer work in any large organization, as in manufacturing,
to produce automobiles, or in the insurance industry, to process data on vast
numbers of policies. Automation may be used even by labor unions, churches,
and other organizations that are large enough to need and afford the equipment.
It has been reliably estimated that most of the recording activities of the New
York Stock Exchange could be handled by one electronic computer and two
operators.
Technology of which automation is a component-is the application of
science to practical uses. Man lived hundreds of thousands of years without it,
until the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, but only about 10 percent of
the people were able to live above minimum subsistence, and they usually did
this by enslaving the rest. Since the first Industrial Revolution, and during the
present-day "automation revolution" the number of people living in poverty in
industrialized countries has fallen to about 20 percent.
Nearly everybody knows that technology can solve a multitude of problems.
Spectacular economic growth has been due in great part to advances in
technology. Untold millions of people, especially in the underdeveloped parts of
the world, fully expect science and technology to solve all of their most pressing
problems.
Too few persons recognize that although technology solves countless old
problems it also creates many new ones. Not all technological improvement is a
net gain. In the first place, some new technology is necessary just to cure the ills
of previous technology; for example, if afterburners are perfected for automobile
exhaust, then the air will merely be as clean as it was before the automobile
contaminated it. Secondly, some new technology is workable but not yet
economical, as in the case of solar energy. Thirdly, nearly all forms of
technology have enormous potential for human betterment but, if they are not
clearly understood, technological advances can do more harm than good. This is
especially true of automation.
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Mass-production techniques, however, have produced a mental and physical
dependency on machines. The complete effects of this dependence are not yet
fully recognized. Although living standards in the industrialized world are the
highest in history, much of industry has become dependent on automated
machinery, and as a consequence people generally have become dependent on
automation's products, such as washers, dryers, and automobiles. Reliance on
these machines often tends to make society measure culture not in terms of
intellectual or artistic accomplishment but in terms of such new concepts as
automobile horse-power, cigarette mildness, and deodorant durability.
FOOTWARE
Long before history was written shoes were being made. The earliest
dawn of civilization in all the diverse corners of the world has almost
invariably seen men contriving some sort of foot-covering.
Shoes were unnecessary in warm climates. Primitive man perhaps as
early as 20,000 B. C., learned to preserve pelts and to bind them about
himself or to cut and sew them together for garments. He also wove
strips into baskets and molded wet leather around a foot or hard core
to make shoes.
In ancient Egyptian wall paintings only kings and priests are shown
wearing sandals, made of plaited reeds or, as in the case of Tutankhamen, of
finely tooled leather.
People in cooler climates wore shoes much earlier. Egyptian wall
paintings at Beni Hassan (2000 B. c.) and at Thebes (1450 B. c.) depict
Syrians, and Minoans from Crete, wearing an assortment of elaborate
sandals and boots. The meticulous art of the Assyrians has left us detailed
designs of their elaborate and sophisticated sandals on the reliefs from Calah
(modern Nimrud) and Nineveh (about 800 B C.).
The general term for different types of foot coverings is footwear. But
within this category there exist a number of articles. Shoe, a form of footgear
that covers the foot up to the ankle and that is intended as a protection from
cold, dampness, or rough terrain. In addition to shoes, other basic types of
footgear are sandals, moccasins, boots, slippers, and mules. The sandal has a
flat sole of leather or wood fastened to the foot by straps, thongs, or a knob
between the toes. The moccasin is distinguished by a sole that extends up
around the foot to form some part or all of the upper section of the shoe.
This is a primitive form of footgear that is still worn by hunters because of
its flexibility and because it gives greater protection against dampness than
shoes with a seam between the sole and the uppers. The boot consists of a
sole and an upper part that extends above the ankle to protect the leg from
cold, wetness, or dangerous conditions, such as snakebite or thorny plants.
The slipper is a soft shoe, often intended for indoor wear, with uppers
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generally made of fabric and sometimes lined for winter wear with wool or
fur. Mules are slippers that consist of a sole and an upper that covers only
the toes.
Until the age or cheap mass production, shoes were generally
considered a mark of rank or prestige. Common men walked barefoot, and
their feet became callous, helping them to escape much of the discomfort that
would result from not wearing shoes. The nobility, on the other hand, felt
obliged to wear shoes as a proof of gentility, that they could not bear
roughness or dirt. In ancient China, in order to indicate their incapacity for
physical work, upper-class parents bound their daughters' feet to prevent
normal growth and to produce a small, twisted "lily foot." As a result,
wealthy Chinese women could scarcely walk in their tiny shoes.
As the structure of leather is a vast random network of coil-like
molecules linked in fibrous strands, leather is one of the strongest flexible
sheet materials known. It resists tearing and puncture, yet it can be stretched.
As a porous substance, it can absorb moisture and "breathe," and it has insulating qualities. Also, leather is easily worked. It may, for example, be
wrapped, rolled, molded, or folded. It may be puckered, crinkled, pierced,
sewn, embossed, braided, knotted, glued, nailed. In addition, it is
abundantly available in endless variety all over the world.
In view of all these advantages, it is readily seen why leather is widely
used for such things as clothing, shelter, upholstery, hangings, harnesses,
saddles, and bookbindings. Often these utilitarian objects are decorated to
produce works of art.
Thick leather is wetted and bent or molded into sculptural forms. In
addition, leather is woven with other materials on looms, built into
collages and reliefs, and tied into macramé-knotted three-dimensional
forms.
FROM HIDES TO LEATHER
Many of the unique characteristics of leather are due to its threedimensional fibre weave. The raw material (hides and skins) is studied in
its normal state and affected by disease in the living animal. Through
the experiences and discoveries of hundreds of years, various methods
of making leather were gradually devised. Now the processes of making
leather are quite the same throughout the world and their character is
similar to that used long ago. The only difference is that the industries
making leather have become highly scientific.
Although there are many variations in leather making because of
different types of hides made into leather, different agents used for
tanning and finishing and different purposes for which leather is to be
used, the fundamental processes and operations are the same. The series
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of processes by means of which the natural hides and skins are
converted into leather is broadly covered by the term ‘tanning’. But this
denomination is not accurate. Tanning proper is only one of the
operations necessary to produce the finished product. The whole
process of leather manufacture may be divided into three main stages:
1) preparation for tanning, 2) tanning, and 3) finishing.
Since skins and hides are often transported some distance to the
tanneries, they are given a preserving treatment by drying or
treatment with salt as soon as they are taken from the animal. This
keeps them fresh until they arrive at the tannery. Before tanning, all
hide and skins must be thoroughly washed and cleaned. This cleaning
is done in large washing machines. Then each hide is run through a
fleshing machine, which removes flesh and fat. After fleshing the
hides are soaked in a lime solution to loosen the hair so that it can be
easily removed by the machine. This process is called unhairing of
depilation. When soft, fleshed and clean, the skins and hides are ready
to be tanned.
In order to be successful in all these operations and processes, good
knowledge of the properties of hides sand skins and processes taking
place in them are important. The only way this can be examined
directly is through the microscope; hence microscopy is useful and
indeed essential in many ways. In this way the influence on the
microstructure of putrefaction and other changes is examined and
recorded.
Morphology or structure of the skin has been studied for many
years under the microscope. This wonderful instrument has revealed
many secrets of cell formation and has aided in the explanation of
certain known results. The microscope is used to determine the changes
in the fibre structure of the hides at different stages, to diagnose the
causes of any faults in the finished leather and, if necessary, to identify
the source of the material and the type of the process used. Since the
properties of leather depend largely on the properties of the fibres and
the way in which they interweave, it possible, to some extent, to assess
the quality of a leather from microscopical observations. The use of the
microscope and the interpretation of observations made with it do not
present problems greater than those encountered with other methods of
control used in tanneries.
SOCIAL WORK
Nature of the Social Work
Social work is a profession for those with a strong desire to help improve
people's lives. Social workers help people function the best way they can in their
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environment, deal with their relationships, and solve personal and family
problems. Social workers often see clients who face a life-threatening disease or
a social problem. These problems may include inadequate housing,
unemployment, serious illness, disability or abuse. Social workers also assist
families that have serious domestic conflicts, including those involving child or
spousal abuse.
Social workers often provide social services in health-related settings that now
are governed by managed-care organizations. To contain costs, these
organizations are emphasizing short-term intervention, ambulatory and
community-based care, and greater decentralization of services.
Most social workers specialize. Although some conduct research or are involved
in planning or policy development, most social workers prefer an area of
practice in which they interact with clients.
Child, family and school social workers provide social services and assistance to
improve the social and psychological functioning of children and their families
and to maximize the family well-being and academic functioning of children.
Some social workers assist single parents; arrange adoptions; and help find
foster homes for neglected, abandoned or abused children. In schools, they
address such problems as teenage, pregnancy, misbehaviour and truancy. They
also advise teachers on how to cope with problem students. Some social workers
may specialize in services for senior citizens. They run support groups for
family caregivers or for the adult children of aging parents. Some advise elderly
people or family members about choices in areas such as housing, transportation
and long-term care; they also coordinate and monitor services. Through
employee assistance programs, they may help workers cope with job-related
pressures or with personal problems that affect the quality of their work. Child,
family and school social workers typically work in individual and family
services agencies, schools, or state or local governments.
Job Outlook for Social Workers
Competition for social worker jobs is stronger in cities, where demand for
services often is highest and training programs for social workers are prevalent.
However, opportunities should be good in rural areas, which often find it
difficult to attract and retain qualified staff. By specialty, job prospects may be
best for those social workers with a background in gerontology and abuse
treatment.
Employment of social workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all
occupations through 2012. The rapidly growing elderly population and the aging
baby boom generation will create greater demand for health and social services,
resulting in particularly rapid job growth among gerontology social workers.
Many job openings also will stem from the need to replace social workers who
leave the occupation.
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As hospitals continue to limit the length of patient stays, the demand for social
workers in hospitals will grow more slowly than in other areas. Because
hospitals are releasing patients earlier than in the past, social worker
employment in home healthcare services is growing. However, the expanding
senior population is an even larger factor. Employment opportunities for social
workers with backgrounds in gerontology should be good in the growing
numbers of assisted-living and senior-living communities. The expanding senior
population will also spur demand for social workers in nursing homes, long-term
care facilities and hospices.
Employment of substance-abuse social workers will grow rapidly over the 200212 projection period. Substance abusers are increasingly being placed into
treatment programs instead of being sentenced to prison. As this trend grows,
demand will increase for treatment programs and social workers to assist
abusers on the road to recovery.
Employment of social workers in private social service agencies will increase.
Employment in state and local government agencies may grow in response to
increasing needs for public welfare, family services and child protection
services.
The American and the Englishman.
The Americans like to "move away", to change homes and jobs. They seem to
be constantly pulling down old and often quite beautiful houses or throwing
away things merely because they are old. They have none of the Englishman's
sentimental love for things because they are old. One often hears of the
Englishman's "reserve"; how he likes to "keep himself to himself; and how on a
long railway journey, with four Englishmen in the carriage, often there won't be
a word spoken during the whole journey. That wouldn't be the case in America.
The Englishman thinks it is illmannered to ask personal questions. The
American doesn't feel that at all. The Englishman prizes privacy, the American
prefers sociability. The Englishman's suburban house has its little garden with a
hedge or a fence all round it to shut him off from his neighbours. - "The
Englishman's hоme is his, castle". The American houses have no hedges or
fences separating them from the pavement or from each other. There are none of
those little shut-off gardens; generally just a strip of grass with trees on it. The
American in his home doesn't object to being seen by everyone - he actually
likes it. And inside the house, instead of the separate hall, living-room, diningroom so typical of the English house, the American has the "open plan" house,
just one large room where all the family activities (usually noisy) go on with,,
perhaps, a "dining recess" or a "kitchen-breakfast-room". The American
sociability goes with overwhelming hospitality. You get taken to parties at the
houses of your friends; you are invited to theatres, dinners, sports meetings,
motor trips; from.the first minute you are on "first name" terms with the people
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you meet; they all show the keenest interest in your affairs and ask you to let
them know if they can help you, and ... by the following week they have
forgotten all about you. They like new things - and they get rid of their friends
as they do of their cars. No one strikes up acquaintance sooner than the
Americans do, and nobody finds it harder to make a real friendship."
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
Введение …………………………………………………………………….3
Контрольное задание № 1 ………………………………………………….5
Контрольное задание № 2 …………………………………………………14
Контрольное задание № 3 …………………………………………………23
Контрольное задание № 4 ………………………………………………... 33
Дополнительное чтение ……………………………………………………42
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